<?xml version='1.0' encoding='UTF-8'?><?xml-stylesheet href="http://www.blogger.com/styles/atom.css" type="text/css"?><feed xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom' xmlns:openSearch='http://a9.com/-/spec/opensearchrss/1.0/' xmlns:georss='http://www.georss.org/georss' xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361</id><updated>2012-02-12T19:55:23.106-08:00</updated><category term='Virgin Coconout Oil'/><category term='Making Biodiesel Fuel'/><category term='rose oils'/><category term='essential oils'/><category term='Karet dan Plastik'/><category term='SMS'/><category term='Casting Industry'/><category term='minyak atsiri'/><category term='PTPP'/><category term='Beneficiation'/><category term='Teknology Penggerak'/><category term='Pengecoran Logam'/><category term='Otomation Technology'/><category term='PPMA'/><category term='Pneumatic'/><category term='MPAP'/><category term='Food Technology'/><category term='VCO'/><category term='Industri Kulit'/><category term='APST'/><category term='Bioetanol'/><category term='engineering system'/><category term='Personal Network'/><category term='Die casting'/><category term='Industri Pengecoran Logam'/><category term='Vegetable Oil'/><category term='Teknologi Penggerak'/><category term='Networking'/><category term='Software'/><category term='minyak nabati'/><category term='Cooking Oil'/><category term='Heat Transfer'/><category term='Food Engineering'/><category term='Industri Kulit dan Plastik'/><category term='Industrial Raw Material'/><category term='asam lemak'/><category term='biodiesel'/><title type='text'>Engineering System</title><subtitle type='html'>All About Technology For Small and Medium Enterprise</subtitle><link rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#feed' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/posts/default'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default?max-results=100'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/'/><link rel='hub' href='http://pubsubhubbub.appspot.com/'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><generator version='7.00' uri='http://www.blogger.com'>Blogger</generator><openSearch:totalResults>66</openSearch:totalResults><openSearch:startIndex>1</openSearch:startIndex><openSearch:itemsPerPage>100</openSearch:itemsPerPage><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-1786664046079998832</id><published>2010-08-27T16:59:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2010-08-27T17:02:49.562-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Industri Pengecoran Logam'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Die casting'/><title type='text'>What do You Know about Die Casting</title><content type='html'>&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;a name="Introduction"&gt;Introduction&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Die casting is a versatile process for producing engineered  metal parts by forcing molten metal under high  pressure into reusable steel molds. These molds, called dies, can be designed to  produce complex shapes with a high degree of accuracy and repeatability. Parts  can be sharply defined, with smooth or textured surfaces, and are suitable for a  wide variety of attractive and serviceable finishes.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Die castings are among the highest volume, mass-produced items  manufactured by the metalworking industry, and they can be found in thousands of  consumer, commercial and industrial products. Die cast parts are important  components of products ranging from automobiles to toys. Parts can be as simple  as a sink faucet or as complex as a connector housing.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;   &lt;center&gt; &lt;table style="border-collapse: collapse; text-align: left; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px;" id="AutoNumber21" width="380" border="0" bordercolor="#111111" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"&gt;   &lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;     &lt;td width="380"&gt;     &lt;img src="http://www.diecasting.org/faq/Images/figure_01.jpg" width="328" border="1" height="155" /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;   &lt;/tr&gt;   &lt;tr&gt;     &lt;td valign="top" width="380"&gt;     &lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:78%;color:#666666;"&gt;Die cast parts are found in many places around the home. The      polished, plated zinc die casting in this kitchen faucet illustrates one of      the many finishes possible with die casting.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;   &lt;/tr&gt;   &lt;tr&gt;     &lt;td valign="top" width="380"&gt;     &lt;p&gt;     &lt;img src="http://www.diecasting.org/faq/Images/figure_02.jpg" width="210" border="1" height="155" /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;   &lt;/tr&gt;   &lt;tr&gt;     &lt;td valign="top" width="380"&gt;     &lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:78%;color:#666666;"&gt;These connector housings are examples of the durable, highly      accurate components that can be produced with today’s modern die casting.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;   &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;   &lt;/center&gt; &lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;b&gt; &lt;a name="History"&gt;History&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;The earliest examples of die casting by pressure injection - as  opposed to casting by gravity pressure - occurred in the mid-1800s. A patent was  awarded to Sturges in 1849 for the first manually operated machine for casting  printing type. The process was limited to printer’s type for the next 20 years,  but development of other shapes began to increase toward the end of the century.  By 1892, commercial applications included parts for phonographs and cash  registers, and mass production of many types of parts began in the early 1900s.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;The first die casting alloys were various compositions of tin  and lead, but their use declined with the introduction of zinc and aluminum  alloys in 1914. Magnesium and copper alloys quickly followed, and by the 1930s,  many of the modern alloys still in use today became available.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;The die casting process has evolved from the original  low-pressure injection method to techniques including high-pressure casting — at  forces exceeding 4500 pounds per square inch — squeeze casting and semi-solid  die casting. These modern processes are capable of producing high integrity,  near net-shape castings with excellent surface finishes. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;b&gt; &lt;a name="Future"&gt;The Future&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Refinements continue in both the alloys used in die casting and  the process itself, expanding die casting applications into almost every known  market. Once limited to simple lead type, today’s die casters can produce  castings in a variety of sizes, shapes and wall thicknesses that are strong,  durable and dimensionally precise.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;       &lt;/div&gt;         &lt;center&gt;         &lt;table style="border-collapse: collapse; text-align: left; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px;" id="AutoNumber22" width="500" border="0" bordercolor="#111111" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"&gt;           &lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;             &lt;td width="100%"&gt;     &lt;img src="http://www.diecasting.org/faq/Images/figure_03.jpg" width="423" border="1" height="200" /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;           &lt;/tr&gt;           &lt;tr&gt;             &lt;td width="100%"&gt;     &lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:78%;color:#666666;"&gt;A magnesium seat pan shows how complex, lightweight die cast      components can improve production by replacing multiple pieces.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;           &lt;/tr&gt;         &lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;         &lt;/center&gt;       &lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;     &lt;img src="http://www.diecasting.org/faq/Images/Figure04.gif" width="550" border="0" height="362" /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;b&gt; &lt;a name="Advantages"&gt;The Advantages of Die Casting&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Die casting is an efficient, economical process offering a  broader range of shapes and components than any other manufacturing technique.  Parts have long service life and may be designed to complement the visual appeal  of the surrounding part. Designers can gain a number of advantages and benefits  by specifying die cast parts.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;High-speed production - Die casting provides complex shapes  within closer tolerances than many other mass production processes. Little or no  machining is required and thousands of identical castings can be produced before  additional tooling is required.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Dimensional accuracy and stability - Die casting produces  parts that are durable and dimensionally stable, while maintaining close  tolerances. They are also heat resistant.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Strength and weight - Die cast parts are stronger than  plastic injection moldings having the same dimensions. Thin wall castings are  stronger and lighter than those possible with other casting methods. Plus,  because die castings do not consist of separate parts welded or fastened  together, the strength is that of the alloy rather than the joining process.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Multiple finishing techniques - Die cast parts can be  produced with smooth or textured surfaces, and they are easily plated or  finished with a minimum of surface preparation.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Simplified Assembly - Die castings provide integral  fastening elements, such as bosses and studs. Holes can be cored and made to tap  drill sizes, or external threads can be cast. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;b&gt; &lt;a name="Process"&gt;Die Casting Process&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;The basic die casting process consists of injecting molten metal  under high pressure into a steel mold called a die. Die casting machines are  typically rated in clamping tons equal to the amount of pressure they can exert  on the die. Machine sizes range from 400 tons to 4000 tons. Regardless of their  size, the only fundamental difference in die casting machines is the method used  to inject molten metal into a die. The two methods are hot chamber or cold  chamber. A complete die casting cycle can vary from less than one second for  small components weighing less than an ounce, to two-to-three minutes for a  casting of several pounds, making die casting the fastest technique available  for producing precise non-ferrous metal parts.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;        &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;b&gt; &lt;a name="vs"&gt;Die Casting vs. Other Processes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Die casting vs. plastic molding - Die casting produces  stronger parts with closer tolerances that have greater stability and  durability. Die cast parts have greater resistance to temperature extremes and  superior electrical properties.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Die casting vs. sand casting - Die casting produces parts  with thinner walls, closer dimensional limits and smoother surfaces. Production  is faster and labor costs per casting are lower. Finishing costs are also less.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Die casting vs. permanent mold - Die casting offers the same  advantages versus permanent molding as it does compared with sand casting.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Die casting vs. forging - Die casting produces more complex  shapes with closer tolerances, thinner walls and lower finishing costs. Cast  coring holes are not available with forging.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Die casting vs. stamping - Die casting produces complex  shapes with variations possible in section thickness. One casting may replace  several stampings, resulting in reduced assembly time.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Die casting vs. screw machine products - Die casting  produces shapes that are difficult or impossible from bar or tubular stock,  while maintaining tolerances without tooling adjustments. Die casting requires  fewer operations and reduces waste and scrap.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;b&gt; &lt;a name="Proper"&gt;Choosing the Proper Alloy&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Each of the metal alloys available for die casting offer  particular advantages for the completed part.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Zinc - The easiest alloy to cast, it offers high ductility,  high impact strength and is easily plated. Zinc is economical for small parts,  has a low melting point and promotes long die life.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Aluminum - This alloy is lightweight, while possessing high  dimensional stability for complex shapes and thin walls. Aluminum has good  corrosion resistance and mechanical properties, high thermal and electrical  conductivity, as well as strength at high temperatures.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Magnesium - The easiest alloy to machine, magnesium has an  excellent strength-to-weight ratio and is the lightest alloy commonly die cast.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Copper - This alloy possesses high hardness, high corrosion  resistance and the highest mechanical properties of alloys cast. It offers  excellent wear resistance and dimensional stability, with strength approaching  that of steel parts.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Lead and Tin - These alloys offer high density and are  capable of producing parts with extremely close dimensions. They are also used  for special forms of corrosion resistance.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;b&gt; &lt;a name="Construction"&gt;Die Construction&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Dies, or die casting tooling, are made of alloy tool steels in  at least two sections, the fixed die half, or cover half, and the ejector die  half, to permit removal of castings. Modern dies also may have moveable slides,  cores or other sections to produce holes, threads and other desired shapes in  the casting. Sprue holes in the fixed die half allow molten metal to enter the  die and fill the cavity. The ejector half usually contains the runners  (passageways) and gates (inlets) that route molten metal to the cavity. Dies  also include locking pins to secure the two halves, ejector pins to help remove  the cast part, and openings for coolant and lubricant. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;When the die casting machine closes, the two die halves are  locked and held together by the machine’s hydraulic pressure. The surface where  the ejector and fixed halves of the die meet and lock is referred to as the "die  parting line." The total projected surface area of the part being cast, measured  at the die parting line, and the pressure required of the machine to inject  metal into the die cavity governs the clamping force of the machine.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;       &lt;/div&gt;         &lt;center&gt;         &lt;table style="border-collapse: collapse; text-align: left; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px;" id="AutoNumber24" width="500" border="0" bordercolor="#111111" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"&gt;           &lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;             &lt;td width="100%"&gt;       &lt;script type="text/javascript"&gt; AC_FL_RunContent( 'codebase','http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=6,0,0,0','width','501','height','508','id','Die_functions0','align','','src','images/Die_functions','play','0','quality','High','bgcolor','FFFFFF','name','Die_functions','pluginspage','http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer','movie','images/Die_functions','_cx','13229','_cy','13891','flashvars','0','wmode','Window','loop','-1','salign','value','menu','-1','base','value','allowscriptaccess','always','scale','ShowAll','devicefont','0','embedmovie','0','swremote','value' ); //end AC code &lt;/script&gt;&lt;noscript&gt;&lt;object classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=6,0,0,0" width="501" height="508" id="Die_functions0" align=""&gt;  &lt;param name="movie" value="images/Die_functions.swf"&gt; &lt;param name="play" value="0"&gt;          &lt;param name="quality" value="High"&gt; &lt;param name="bgcolor" value="FFFFFF"&gt;         &lt;param name="_cx" value="13229"&gt;         &lt;param name="_cy" value="13891"&gt;         &lt;param name="FlashVars" value="0"&gt;         &lt;param name="Src" value="images/Die_functions.swf"&gt;         &lt;param name="WMode" value="Window"&gt;         &lt;param name="Loop" value="-1"&gt;         &lt;param name="SAlign"&gt;         &lt;param name="Menu" value="-1"&gt;         &lt;param name="Base"&gt;         &lt;param name="AllowScriptAccess" value="always"&gt;         &lt;param name="Scale" value="ShowAll"&gt;         &lt;param name="DeviceFont" value="0"&gt;         &lt;param name="EmbedMovie" value="0"&gt;         &lt;param name="SWRemote"&gt;         &lt;embed src="Images/Die_functions.swf" play="false" quality="high" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" width="500" height="525" name="Die_functions" align="" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer"&gt;&lt;/embed&gt;&lt;/object&gt;&lt;/noscript&gt;             &lt;/td&gt;           &lt;/tr&gt;         &lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;         &lt;/center&gt;       &lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;There are four types of dies:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;dir&gt;   &lt;p&gt;1. Single cavity to produce one component&lt;/p&gt;   &lt;table style="border-collapse: collapse;" id="AutoNumber25" width="400" border="0" bordercolor="#111111" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"&gt;     &lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;       &lt;td valign="top" width="100%"&gt;         &lt;img src="http://www.diecasting.org/faq/Images/Figure_06b.gif" width="150" border="0" height="213" /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;     &lt;/tr&gt;   &lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; &lt;/dir&gt; &lt;dir&gt;   &lt;p&gt;   2. Multiple cavity to produce a number of identical parts&lt;/p&gt;   &lt;table style="border-collapse: collapse;" id="AutoNumber26" width="400" border="0" bordercolor="#111111" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"&gt;     &lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;       &lt;td valign="top" width="100%"&gt;         &lt;img src="http://www.diecasting.org/faq/Images/Figure_07b.gif" width="150" border="0" height="203" /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;     &lt;/tr&gt;   &lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; &lt;/dir&gt; &lt;dir&gt;   &lt;p&gt;   3. Unit die to produce different parts at one time&lt;/p&gt;   &lt;div&gt;   &lt;table style="border-collapse: collapse;" id="AutoNumber27" width="400" border="0" bordercolor="#111111" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"&gt;     &lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;       &lt;td valign="top" width="50%"&gt;         &lt;img src="http://www.diecasting.org/faq/Images/Figure_08b.gif" width="150" border="0" height="199" /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;       &lt;td valign="top" width="50%"&gt;         &lt;img src="http://www.diecasting.org/faq/Images/Figure_08.jpg" width="353" border="0" height="183" /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;     &lt;/tr&gt;   &lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;   &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/dir&gt; &lt;dir&gt;   &lt;p&gt;   4. Combination die to produce several different parts for an assembly.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;/dir&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;b&gt; &lt;a name="Hot"&gt;Hot Chamber Machines&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; Click on the image to see an animation&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;     &lt;a href="http://www.diecasting.org/faq/Chamber_hot.htm"&gt;     &lt;img src="http://www.diecasting.org/faq/Images/Hot.jpg" width="250" border="0" height="188" hspace="5" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Hot chamber machines are used primarily for zinc, copper,  magnesium, lead and other low melting  point alloys that do not readily attack  and erode metal pots, cylinders and plungers. The injection mechanism of a hot  chamber machine is immersed in the molten metal bath of a metal holding furnace.  The furnace is attached to the machine by a metal feed system called a  gooseneck. As the injection cylinder plunger rises, a port in the injection  cylinder opens, allowing molten metal to fill the cylinder. As the plunger moves  downward it seals the port and forces molten metal through the gooseneck and  nozzle into the die cavity. After the metal has solidified in the die cavity,  the plunger is withdrawn, the die opens and the casting is ejected.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;b&gt; &lt;a name="Cold"&gt;Cold Chamber Machines&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; Click on the image to see an animation&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;     &lt;a href="http://www.diecasting.org/faq/Chamber_cold.htm"&gt;     &lt;img src="http://www.diecasting.org/faq/Images/Cold.jpg" width="250" border="0" height="188" hspace="5" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Cold chamber machines are used for alloys such as aluminum and  other alloys with high melting points. The molten metal is poured into a "cold  chamber," or cylindrical sleeve, manually by a hand ladle or by an automatic  ladle. A hydraulically operated plunger seals the cold chamber port and forces  metal into the locked die at high pressures.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;b&gt; &lt;a name="Integrity"&gt;High Integrity Die Casting Methods&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;There are several variations on the basic process that can be  used to produce castings for specific applications. These include:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Squeeze casting - A method by which molten alloy is cast  without turbulence and gas entrapment at high pressure to yield high quality,  dense, heat treatable components.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;       &lt;/div&gt;         &lt;center&gt; &lt;table style="border-collapse: collapse; text-align: left; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px;" id="AutoNumber28" width="89%" border="0" bordercolor="#111111" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"&gt;   &lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;     &lt;td width="100%"&gt;     &lt;p&gt;     &lt;a href="http://www.diecasting.org/faq/Chamber_squeeze.htm"&gt;     &lt;img src="http://www.diecasting.org/faq/Images/Figure_13.gif" width="450" border="0" height="167" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    Click on the image to see an animation&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;   &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;         &lt;/center&gt;       &lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Semi-solid molding - A procedure where semi-solid metal  billets are cast to provide dense, heat treatable castings with low porosity.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;img src="http://www.diecasting.org/faq/Images/Figure_12.gif" width="450" border="0" height="113" /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;     &lt;img src="http://www.diecasting.org/faq/Images/Figure_14.gif" width="450" border="0" height="374" /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;b&gt; &lt;a name="Automation"&gt;Automation and Quality Control&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;script type="text/javascript"&gt; AC_FL_RunContent( 'codebase','http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=6,0,0,0','width','310','height','290','id','animations0','align','right','src','images/animations','play','0','quality','High','bgcolor','FFFFFF','name','animations','pluginspage','http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer','movie','images/animations','_cx','8043','_cy','7673','flashvars','0','wmode','Window','loop','-1','salign','TR','menu','-1','base','value','allowscriptaccess','always','scale','ShowAll','devicefont','0','embedmovie','0','swremote','value' ); //end AC code &lt;/script&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Modern die casters use a number of sophisticated methods to  automate the die casting process and provide continuous quality control.  Automated systems can be used to lubricate dies, ladle metal into cold chamber  machines and integrate other functions, such as quenching and trimming castings.  Microprocessors obtain metal velocity, shot rod position, hydraulic pressure and  other data that is used to adjust the die casting machine process, assuring  consistent castings shot after shot. These process control systems also collect  machine performance data for statistical analysis in quality control.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;b&gt; &lt;a name="Design"&gt;Die Casting Design&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;img src="http://www.diecasting.org/faq/Images/Figure_17.jpg" width="280" border="1" height="290" hspace="5" /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;  &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Die casting is one of the fastest and most cost-effective  methods for producing a wide range of components. However, to achieve maximum  benefits from this process, it is critical that designers collaborate with the  die caster at an early stage of the product design and development. Consulting  with the die caster during the design phase will help resolve issues affecting  tooling and production, while identifying the various trade-offs that could  affect overall costs.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;For instance, parts having external undercuts or projections on  sidewalls often require dies with slides. Slides increase the cost of the  tooling, but may result in reduced metal use, uniform casting wall thickness or  other advantages. These savings may offset the cost of tooling, depending upon  the production quantities, providing overall economies.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Many sources are available for information on die casting  design, including textbooks, technical papers, trade journals and professional  associations. While this section is not intended to provide a comprehensive  review of all the factors involving die casting design, it will highlight some  of the primary considerations. Additional sources of information are listed in  the "Resources" section of this brochure.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;b&gt; &lt;a href="http://www.diecasting.org/faq/alloy_prop.htm" name="Alloy"&gt;Alloy Properties&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/b&gt; One of the first steps in designing a die cast component is  choosing the proper alloy. Typical properties for the most commonly used alloys  are shown on the linked charts.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;b&gt; &lt;a name="Materials"&gt;Comparing Materials&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;The cost of materials is another important design consideration.  Accurate comparisons require looking beyond the cost per pound or cost per cubic  inch to fully analyze the advantages and disadvantages of each competing  process. For instance, the relatively greater strength of metals generally  allows thinner walls and sections and consequently requires fewer cubic inches  of material than plastics for a given application. sumber : &lt;a href="http://www.diecasting.org"&gt;http://www.diecasting.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-1786664046079998832?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/1786664046079998832/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/08/what-do-you-know-about-die-casting.html#comment-form' title='4 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/1786664046079998832'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/1786664046079998832'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/08/what-do-you-know-about-die-casting.html' title='What do You Know about Die Casting'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>4</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-5751848016010575702</id><published>2010-08-27T16:58:00.001-07:00</published><updated>2010-08-27T16:59:33.295-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Industri Pengecoran Logam'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Die casting'/><title type='text'>Advantages and Disadvantages of Die Casting</title><content type='html'>&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Advantages:&lt;sup id="cite_ref-D331_8-1" class="reference"&gt;&lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_casting#cite_note-D331-8"&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;ul style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;li&gt;Excellent dimensional accuracy (dependent on casting material, but  typically 0.1 mm for the first 2.5 cm (0.005 in. for the first inch) and  0.02 mm for each additional centimeter (0.002 in. for each additional  inch).&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Smooth cast surfaces (1–2.5 micrometres or 0.04–0.10 thou &lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_mean_square" title="Root mean square"&gt;rms&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Thinner walls can be cast as compared to sand and permanent mold casting (approximately 0.75 mm or 0.030 in).&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Inserts can be cast-in (such as threaded inserts, heating elements, and high strength bearing surfaces).&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Reduces or eliminates secondary machining operations.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Rapid production rates.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Casting tensile strength as high as 415 MPa (60 ksi).&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Castings are made as large as an 8 feet across and 30Lbs in weight. In magnesium&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Disadvantages:&lt;sup id="cite_ref-D331_8-2" class="reference"&gt;&lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_casting#cite_note-D331-8"&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;ul style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;li&gt;Casting weight must be between 30 grams (1 oz) and 10 kg (20 lb).&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;High initial cost.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Limited to high-fluidity metals.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;A certain amount of porosity is common.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;A large production volume is needed to make this an economical alternative to other processes&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;sumber : &lt;a href="http://wikipedia.org"&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-5751848016010575702?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/5751848016010575702/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/08/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-die.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/5751848016010575702'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/5751848016010575702'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/08/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-die.html' title='Advantages and Disadvantages of Die Casting'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-5178517344166111701</id><published>2010-08-27T16:55:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2010-08-27T16:57:57.218-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Industri Pengecoran Logam'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Die casting'/><title type='text'>Equipment of Die Casting</title><content type='html'>&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;There are two basic types of die casting machines: &lt;b&gt;hot-chamber machines&lt;/b&gt; (a.k.a. &lt;b&gt;gooseneck machines&lt;/b&gt;) and &lt;b&gt;cold-chamber machines&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;sup id="cite_ref-D2930_3-1" class="reference"&gt;&lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_casting#cite_note-D2930-3"&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; These are rated by how much clamping force they can apply. Typical ratings are between 400 and 4,000 &lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_ton" title="Short ton"&gt;short tons&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;sup id="cite_ref-NADCA_0-2" class="reference"&gt;&lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_casting#cite_note-NADCA-0"&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Hot-chamber machines rely upon a pool of molten metal to feed the  die. At the beginning of the cycle the piston of the machine is  retracted, which allows the molten metal to fill the "gooseneck". The  gas or oil powered piston then forces this metal out of the gooseneck  into the die. The advantages of this system include fast cycle times  (approximately 15 cycles a minute) and the convenience of melting the  metal in the casting machine. The disadvantages of this system are that  high-&lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point"&gt;melting point&lt;/a&gt;  metals cannot be utilized and aluminium cannot be used because it picks  up some of the iron while in the molten pool. Due to this, hot-chamber  machines are primarily used with zinc, tin, and lead based alloys.&lt;sup id="cite_ref-D2930_3-2" class="reference"&gt;&lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_casting#cite_note-D2930-3"&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;table style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px;" class="gallery" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"&gt; &lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt; &lt;div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"&gt; &lt;div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0pt; width: 150px;"&gt; &lt;div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mg_injection_machine.JPG" class="image"&gt;&lt;img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Mg_injection_machine.JPG/120px-Mg_injection_machine.JPG" width="120" height="80" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="gallerytext"&gt; &lt;p&gt;injection molding machine.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; &lt;div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"&gt; &lt;div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0pt; width: 150px;"&gt; &lt;div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Magnesium_Injection_Moulding_machine.jpg" class="image"&gt;&lt;img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Magnesium_Injection_Moulding_machine.jpg/120px-Magnesium_Injection_Moulding_machine.jpg" width="120" height="80" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="gallerytext"&gt; &lt;p&gt;open tooling and injection nozzle.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; &lt;div class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px;"&gt; &lt;div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0pt; width: 150px;"&gt; &lt;div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 120px;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diecasting_machine_cold_chamber.jpg" class="image"&gt;&lt;img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Diecasting_machine_cold_chamber.jpg/120px-Diecasting_machine_cold_chamber.jpg" width="120" height="90" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="gallerytext"&gt; &lt;p&gt;Complete working cell.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Cold-chamber machines are used when the casting alloy cannot be used  in hot-chamber machines; these include aluminium, zinc alloys with a  large composition of aluminium, magnesium and copper. This machine works  by melting the material, first, in a separate furnace. Then a precise  amount of molten metal is transported to the cold-chamber machine where  it is fed into an unheated shot chamber (or injection cylinder). This  shot is then driven into the die by a hydraulic or mechanical piston.  This biggest disadvantage of this system is the slower cycle time due to  the need to transfer the molten metal from the furnace to the  cold-chamber machine.&lt;sup id="cite_ref-D330_6-2" class="reference"&gt;&lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_casting#cite_note-D330-6"&gt;&lt;span&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;7&lt;span&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;The dies used in die casting are usually made out of hardened tool  steels because cast iron cannot withstand the high pressures involved.  Due to this the dies are very expensive, resulting in high start-up  costs. Dies may contain only one mold cavity or multiple cavities of the  same or different parts. There must be at least two dies to allow for  separation and ejection of the finished workpiece, however its not  uncommon for there to be more sections that open and close in different  directions. Dies also often contain water-cooling passages, retractable &lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_%28manufacturing%29" title="Core (manufacturing)"&gt;cores&lt;/a&gt;,  ejector pins, and vents along the parting lines. These vents are  usually wide and thin (approximately 0.13 mm or 0.005 in) so that when  the molten metal starts filling them the metal quickly solidifies and  minimizes scrap. No &lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risers" title="Risers" class="mw-redirect"&gt;risers&lt;/a&gt;  are used because the high pressure ensures a continuous feed of metal  from the gate. Recently, there's been a trend to incorporate larger  gates in the die and to use lower injection pressures to fill the mold,  and then increase the pressure after its filled. This system helps  reduce porosity and inclusions&lt;span style="text-decoration: underline;"&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"&gt;&lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_casting#cite_note-7"&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;In addition to the dies there may be cores involved to cast features  such as undercuts. Sand cores cannot be used because they disintegrate  from the high pressures involved with die casting, therefore metal cores  are used. If a retractable core is used then provisions must be made  for it to be removed either in a straight line or circular arc.  Moreover, these cores must have very little clearance between the die  and the core to prevent the molten metal from escaping. Loose cores may  also be used to cast more intricate features (such as threaded holes).  These loose cores are inserted into the die by hand before each cycle  and then ejected with the part at the end of the cycle. The core then  must be removed by hand. Loose cores are more expensive due to the extra  labor and time involved.&lt;sup id="cite_ref-D331_8-0" class="reference"&gt;&lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_casting#cite_note-D331-8"&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A die's life is most prominently limited by wear or erosion, which is strongly dependent on the temperature of the molten metal.&lt;sup id="cite_ref-D329_9-0" class="reference"&gt;&lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_casting#cite_note-D329-9"&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; Dies for zinc are often made of &lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tool_steel#AISI-SAE_grades" title="Tool steel"&gt;H13&lt;/a&gt; and only hardened to 29-34 &lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockwell_scale#Scales_and_values" title="Rockwell scale"&gt;HRC&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;sup id="cite_ref-asm_10-0" class="reference"&gt;&lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_casting#cite_note-asm-10"&gt;&lt;span&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;11&lt;span&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; Cores are either made of H13 or &lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAE_steel_grades#Stainless_steel" title="SAE steel grades"&gt;440B&lt;/a&gt;, so that the wearing parts can be selectively nitrided for hardness, leaving the exposed part soft to resist heat checking.&lt;sup id="cite_ref-asm_10-1" class="reference"&gt;&lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_casting#cite_note-asm-10"&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;table style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px;" class="wikitable"&gt; &lt;caption&gt;Typical die temperatures and life for various cast materials&lt;sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"&gt;&lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_casting#cite_note-11"&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/caption&gt; &lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt; &lt;th&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th&gt;Zinc&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th&gt;Aluminum&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th&gt;Magnesium&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th&gt;Brass (leaded yellow)&lt;/th&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Maximum die life [number of cycles]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;1,000,000&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;100,000&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;100,000&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;10,000&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Die temperature [C° (F°)]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;218 (425)&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;288 (550)&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;260 (500)&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;500 (950)&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Casting temperature [C° (F°)]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;400 (760)&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;660 (1220)&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;760 (1400)&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;1090 (2000)&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Other failure modes for dies are:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;ul style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;Heat checking&lt;/i&gt;: surface cracks occur on the die due to a large temperature change on every cycle&lt;sup id="cite_ref-D329_9-1" class="reference"&gt;&lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_casting#cite_note-D329-9"&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;i&gt;Thermal fatigue&lt;/i&gt;: surface cracks occur on the die due to a large number of cycles&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;sumber : &lt;a href="http://wikipedia.org"&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-5178517344166111701?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/5178517344166111701/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/08/equipment-of-die-casting.html#comment-form' title='1 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/5178517344166111701'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/5178517344166111701'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/08/equipment-of-die-casting.html' title='Equipment of Die Casting'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>1</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-8266754350359809338</id><published>2010-08-27T16:50:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2010-08-27T16:55:20.150-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Industri Pengecoran Logam'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Die casting'/><title type='text'>History and Process of Die Casting</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Die casting is the process of forcing molten metal under high pressure into mold cavities (which are machined into dies). Most die castings are made from non-ferrous metals, specifically zinc, copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead, pewter and tin based alloys, although ferrous metal die castings are possible.  The die casting method is especially suited for applications where a large quantity of small to medium sized parts are needed, ensuring precise surface quality and dimensional consistency.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;This level of versatility has placed die castings among the highest volume products made in the metalworking industry&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;History&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Die casting equipment was invented in 1838 for the purpose of producing movable type for the printing industry. The first die casting-related patent was granted in 1849 for a small hand operated machine for the purpose of mechanized printing type production. In 1885, Otto Mergenthaler invented the linotype machine, an automated type casting device that became the prominent type of equipment in the publishing industry. Other applications grew rapidly, with die casting facilitating the growth of consumer goods and appliances by making affordable the production of intricate parts in high volumes&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Process&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;There are four major steps in the die casting process. First, the mold is sprayed with lubricant and closed. The lubricant both helps control the temperature of the die and it also assists in the removal of the casting. Molten metal is then shot into the die under high pressure; between 10—175 MPa (1,500—25,000 psi). Once the die is filled the pressure is maintained until the casting has solidified. The die is then opened and the shot (shots are different from castings because there can be multiple cavities in a die, yielding multiple castings per shot) is ejected by the ejector pins. Finally, the scrap, which includes the gate, runners, sprues and flash, must be separated from the casting(s). This is often done using a special trim die in a power press or hydraulic press. An older method is separating by hand or by sawing, which case grinding may be necessary to smooth the scrap marks. A less labor-intensive method is to tumble shots if gates are thin and easily broken; separation of gates from finished parts must follow. This scrap is recycled by remelting it. The yield is approximately 67%.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The high-pressure injection leads to a quick fill of the die, which is required so the entire cavity fills before any part of the casting solidifies. In this way, discontinuities are avoided even if the shape requires difficult-to-fill thin sections. This creates the problem of air entrapment, because when the mold is filled quickly there is little time for the air to escape. This problem is minimized by including vents along the parting lines, however, even in a highly refined process there will still be some porosity in the center of the casting.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Most die casters perform other secondary operations to produce features not readily castable, such as tapping a hole, polishing, plating, buffing, or painting.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pore-free casting process&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;When no porosity is required for a casting then the pore-free casting process is used. It is identical to the standard process except oxygen is injected into the die before each shot. This causes small dispersed oxides to form when the molten metal fills the dies, which virtually eliminates gas porosity. An added advantage to this is greater strength. These castings can still be heat treated and welded. This process can be performed on aluminium, zinc, and lead alloys&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Heated-manifold direct-injection die casting&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Heated-manifold direct-injection die casting, also known as direct-injection die casting or runnerless die casting, is a zinc die casting process where molten zinc is forced through a heated manifold and then through heated mini-nozzles, which lead into the molding cavity. This process has the advantages of lower cost per part, through the reduction of scrap (by the elimination of sprues, gates and runners) and energy conservation, and better surface quality through slower cooling cycles.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;sumber : &lt;a href="http://wikipedia.org/"&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-8266754350359809338?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/8266754350359809338/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/08/history-and-process-of-die-casting.html#comment-form' title='1 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/8266754350359809338'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/8266754350359809338'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/08/history-and-process-of-die-casting.html' title='History and Process of Die Casting'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>1</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-393344320587795610</id><published>2010-05-04T05:36:00.002-07:00</published><updated>2010-05-04T05:43:37.505-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Industri Kulit dan Plastik'/><title type='text'>Polyester</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Polyester is a category of polymers which contain the ester functional group in their main chain. Although there are many polyesters, the term "polyester" as a specific material most commonly refers to polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Polyesters include naturally-occurring chemicals, such as in the cutin of plant cuticles, as well as synthetics such as polycarbonate and polybutyrate.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Polyesters may be produced in numerous forms such as fibers, sheets and three-dimensional shapes. Polyesters as thermoplastics may change shape after the application of heat. While combustible at high temperatures, polyesters tend to shrink away from flames and self-extinguish upon ignition. Polyester fibers have high tenacity and E-modulus as well as low water absorption and minimal shrinkage in comparison with other industrial fibers.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Applications&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Polyesters are the most widely used man-made fiber in the world. Woven polyester fabrics are used in consumer apparel and home furnishings such as bed sheets, bedspreads, curtains and draperies. Similarly, industrial polyesters are used in tyre reinforcements, ropes, fabrics for conveyor belts, safety belts, coated fabrics and plastic reinforcements with high energy absorption. Polyester fiberfills are also used to stuff pillows, comforters and cushion padding.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Polyester fabrics are claimed to have a "less natural" feel when compared to similarly-woven fabrics made from natural fibers (i.e. cotton in textile uses). However, polyester fabrics may exhibit other advantages over natural fabrics, such as improved wrinkle resistance. As a result, polyester fibers are sometimes spun together with natural fibers to produce a cloth with blended properties.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Close-up of a polyester shirt&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Polyesters are also used to make bottles, films, tarpaulin, canoes, liquid crystal displays, holograms, filters, dielectric film for capacitors, film insulation for wire and insulating tapes. Liquid crystalline polyesters are among the first industrially-used liquid crystalline polymers. They are used for their mechanical properties and heat-resistance. These traits also important in their application as an abradable seal in jet engines.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Thermosetting polyesters are used as casting materials, and chemosetting polyester resins are used as fiberglass laminating resins and non-metallic auto-body fillers. Fiberglass-reinforced unsaturated polyesters find wide application in bodies of yachts and as body parts of cars.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Polyesters are also widely used as a finish on high-quality wood products such as guitars, pianos and vehicle / yacht interiors. Burns Guitars, Rolls Royce and Sunseeker are a few companies that use polyesters to finish their products. Thixotropic properties of spray-applicable polyesters make them ideal for use on open-grain timbers, as they can quickly fill wood grain, with a high-build film thickness per coat. Cured polyesters can be sanded and polished to a high-gloss, durable finish.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Polyester fiber properties&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Mechanical properties&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="display: block;" id="formatbar_Buttons"&gt;&lt;span class="on down" style="display: block;" id="formatbar_Bold" title="Bold" onmouseover="ButtonHoverOn(this);" onmouseout="ButtonHoverOff(this);" onmouseup="" onmousedown="CheckFormatting(event);FormatbarButton('richeditorframe', this, 3);ButtonMouseDown(this);"&gt;&lt;img src="img/blank.gif" alt="Bold" class="gl_bold" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Energy absorption of chemical fiber reinforced plastics (impact, bending and tensile tests) Investigation of the practical requirements for measuring the energy absorption of composite materials, and development of a suitable method for carrying out such measurements. A number of dynamic testing methods for measuring the energy absorption of laminates are reviewed, including animpact bending test, repeated-impact tests, an impact tensile test, and a ram bending test. Also discussed are impact tests on plate laminates. Particular emphasis is placed in these studies on composites with a chemical fiber reinforcement. It is established that a relation exists between the quasi-static energy absorption of the fibers and the dynamic energy absorption of the composite. Composites with commercial polyester and polyamide fibers lead to the highest energy absorptions, in which case the testing apparatus has a significant effect.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="display: block;" id="formatbar_Buttons"&gt;&lt;span class="on down" style="display: block;" id="formatbar_Bold" title="Bold" onmouseover="ButtonHoverOn(this);" onmouseout="ButtonHoverOff(this);" onmouseup="" onmousedown="CheckFormatting(event);FormatbarButton('richeditorframe', this, 3);ButtonMouseDown(this);"&gt;&lt;img src="img/blank.gif" alt="Bold" class="gl_bold" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Chemical properties&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;The polyester industry&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;To get an idea about coverage, importance and complexity of the polyester industry, some basic information about polyester or polyethylene terephthalate (PET) at first:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;What is polyester? Polyester is a synthetic polymer made of purified terephthalic acid (PTA) or its dimethyl ester dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) and monoethylene glycol (MEG). It ranges after polyethylene and polypropylene at the third place in terms of market size.&lt;br /&gt;The main raw materials are described as follows:&lt;br /&gt;• Purified Terephthalic Acid – PTA – CAS-No.: 100-21-0&lt;br /&gt;Synonym: 1,4 Dibenzenedicarboxylic acid,&lt;br /&gt;Sum formula; C6H4(COOH)2 , mol weight: 166,13&lt;br /&gt;• Dimethylterephthalate – DMT- CAS-No: 120-61-6&lt;br /&gt;Synonym: 1,4 Dibenzenedicarboxylic acid dimethyl ester&lt;br /&gt;Sum formula C6H4(COOCH3)2 , mol weight: 194,19&lt;br /&gt;• Mono Ethylene Glycol – MEG – CAS No.: 107-21-1&lt;br /&gt;Synonym: 1,2 Ethanediol&lt;br /&gt;Sum formula: C2H6O2 , mol weight: 62,07&lt;br /&gt;More information about polyester raw materials one can find for PTA [1],DMT [2] and MEG [3], at the webpage INCHEM "Chemical Safety Information from Intergovernmental Organizations".&lt;br /&gt;To make finally a polymer of high molecular weight one needs a catalyst. The most common catalyst is antimony trioxide (or antimony tri acetate)&lt;br /&gt;Antimony trioxide – ATO – CAS-No.: 1309-64-4 Synonym: non, mol weight: 291,51 Sum formula: Sb2O3&lt;br /&gt;In 2008 about 10 000 t Sb2O3 are used to produce around 49 Mio t polyethylene terephthalate.&lt;br /&gt;Polyester is described as follows:&lt;br /&gt;Polyethylene Terephthalate CAS-No.: 25038-59-9 Synonym / abbreviations: polyester, PET, PES Sum Formula: H-[C10H8O4]-n=60-120 OH, mol unit weight: 192,17&lt;br /&gt;What are the success factors of the unbroken capacity growth of polyethylene terephthalate?&lt;br /&gt;• The relatively easy accessible raw materials PTA or DMT and MEG&lt;br /&gt;• The very well understood and described simple chemical process of polyester synthesis&lt;br /&gt;• The low toxicity level of all raw materials and side products during production and processing&lt;br /&gt;• The possibility to produce PET in a closed loop at low emissions to the environment&lt;br /&gt;• The outstanding mechanical and chemical properties of polyester&lt;br /&gt;• The recycle ability&lt;br /&gt;• The wide variety of intermediate and final products made of polyester&lt;br /&gt;All these facts are making this polymer one of the key elements of our daily life.&lt;br /&gt;In table 1 we see the estimated world polyester production for textile polyester, bottle polyester resin, film polyester mainly for packaging and specialty polyesters for engineering plastics, which are the main fields of application. According to this table, the world's total polyester production might exceed 50 million tons per annum before the year 2010.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Table 1: World polyester production&lt;br /&gt; Market size per year&lt;br /&gt;Product Type 2002 [Mio t/a] 2008 [Mio t/a]&lt;br /&gt;Textile-PET 20 39&lt;br /&gt;Resin, Bottle/A-PET 9 16&lt;br /&gt;Film-PET 1.2 1.5&lt;br /&gt;Special Polyester 1 2.5&lt;br /&gt;TOTAL 31.2 49&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;With its production volume and product diversity, polyester ranges after polyethylene (33.5%), polypropylene (19,5%) with a market share of about 18% in third position among all plastic materials produced worldwide. The polyester production chain, and the relative polyester industry chain, will now be explained in greater detail and step by step.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Raw material producer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The raw materials PTA, DMT and MEG are mainly produced by large chemical companies which are sometimes integrated down to the crude oil refinery where p-xylene is the base material to produce PTA and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the base material to produce MEG.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Large PTA producers are for instance BP, Reliance, Sinopec, SK-Chemicals, Mitsui and Eastman Chemicals. MEG production is in the hand of about 10 global players which are headed by MEGlobal a JV of DOW and PIC Kuweit followed by Sabic.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Let us assume the average production capacity of a single polyester plant is about 200 t/day: we are talking about nearly 500 polyester plants around the globe. Adding to this figure the continuously-growing polyester recycling industry, which is estimated to have processed about 3 million t polyester waste in 2007 alone (5 million T/a in 2010 estimated) and where each plant produces on average about 10 000 t/a, we have another 500 plants. This is 1000 polyester production plants, all needing specific and polyester-dedicated engineering and equipment, machinery, process technology and know-how, producing, processing and recycling polyester.&lt;br /&gt;Among the world's largest polyester producers are the following companies:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Artenius, Advansa, DAK, DuPont, Eastman/Voridian, Hyosung, Huvis, Indorama, Invista, Jiangsu Sanfangxian, M&amp;amp;G Group, Mitsui, Mitsubishi, NanYa Plastics,Reichhold, Reliance, Rongsheng, Sabic, Teijin, Toray, Tonkun, Tuntex, Wellman, Yizheng Sinopec and Sanfanxiang.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;One should notice that China's capacity to produce and process polyester in more than 500 plants is nearly half that of the world's polyester capacity meanwhile. More information about polyester in China can be found under the web site of China Chemical Fiber Economic Information Network&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Polyester processing&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;After the first stage of polymer production in the melt phase, the product stream divides into two different application areas which are mainly textile applications and packaging applications. In figure 2 the main applications of textile and packaging polyester are listed.&lt;br /&gt;Table 2: Textile and packaging polyester application list&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;POLYESTER-BASED POLYMER (MELT or PELLETS)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Staple fiber (PSF) Bottles for CSD, Water, Beer, Juice, Detergents&lt;br /&gt;Filaments POY, DTY, FDY A-PET Film&lt;br /&gt;Technical yarn and tire cord Thermoforming&lt;br /&gt;Non-woven and spunbond BO-PET Biaxial oriented Film&lt;br /&gt;Mono-filament Strapping&lt;br /&gt;Abbreviations: PSF = Polyester Staple Fiber; POY = Partially Oriented Yarn; DTY = Draw Textured Yarn; FDY = Fully Drawn Yarn; CSD = Carbonated Soft Drink; A-PET = Amorphous Polyester Film; BO-PET = Biaxial Oriented Polyester Film; A comparable small market segment (&lt;&lt;&gt; benzene -&gt; PX -&gt; PTA -&gt; PET melt -&gt; fiber / filament or bottle-grade resin. Such integrated processes are meanwhile established in more or less interrupted processes at one production site. Eastman Chemicals introduced at first the idea to close the chain from PX to PET resin with their so-called INTEGREX® process. The capacity of such horizontal, integrated productions sites is &gt;1000 t/d and can easily reach 2500 t/d.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Besides the above mentioned large processing units to produce staple fiber or yarns, there are ten thousands of small and very small processing plants, so that one can estimate that polyester is processed and recycled in more than 10 000 plants around the globe. This is without counting all the companies involved in the supply industry, beginning with engineering and processing machines and ending with special additives, stabilizers and colors. This is a gigantic industry complex and it is still growing by 4–8% per annum, depending on the world region. Useful information about the polyester industry can be found under where a “Who is Producing What in the Polyester Industry” is gradually being developed.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;source : &lt;a href="http://wikipedia.org"&gt;wikipedia.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-393344320587795610?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/393344320587795610/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/polyester.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/393344320587795610'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/393344320587795610'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/polyester.html' title='Polyester'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-750446562317244634</id><published>2010-05-04T05:21:00.001-07:00</published><updated>2010-05-04T05:29:18.773-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Industri Kulit dan Plastik'/><title type='text'>Polyphenylethene</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Polyphenylethene IPA (IUPAC Polyphenylethene) is an aromatic polymer made from the aromatic monomer styrene, a liquid hydrocarbon that is commercially manufactured from petroleum by the chemical industry. Polystyrene is a thermoplastic substance, normally existing in solid state at room temperature, but melting if heated (for molding or extrusion), and becoming solid again when cooling off.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pure solid polystyrene is a colorless, hard plastic with limited flexibility. It can be cast into molds with fine detail. Polystyrene can be transparent or can be made to take on various colours. It is economical and is used for producing plastic model assembly kits, license plate frames, plastic cutlery, CD "jewel" cases, and many other objects where a fairly rigid, economical plastic is desired.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;History&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Polystyrene was discovered in 1839 by Eduard Simon,[3] an apothecary in Berlin. From storax, the resin of Liquidambar orientalis, he distilled an oily substance, a monomer which he named styrol. Several days later Simon found that the styrol had thickened, presumably from oxidation, into a jelly he dubbed styrol oxide ("Styroloxyd"). By 1845 English chemist John Blyth and German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann showed that the same transformation of styrol took place in the absence of oxygen. They called their substance metastyrol. Analysis later showed that it was chemically identical to Styroloxyd. In 1866 Marcelin Berthelot correctly identified the formation of metastyrol from styrol as a polymerization process. About 80 years went by before it was realized that heating of styrol starts a chain reaction which produces macromolecules, following the thesis of German organic chemist Hermann Staudinger (1881–1965). This eventually led to the substance receiving its present name, polystyrene. The I. G. Farben company began manufacturing polystyrene in Ludwigshafen, Germany, about 1931, hoping it would be a suitable replacement for die cast zinc in many applications. Success was achieved when they developed a reactor vessel that extruded polystyrene through a heated tube and cutter, producing polystyrene in pellet form. Polystyrene is about as strong as unalloyed aluminium, but much more flexible.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Structure&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The chemical makeup of polystyrene is a long chain hydrocarbon with every other carbon connected to a Phenyl group (the name given to the aromatic ring benzene, when bonded to complex carbon substituents).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A 3-D model would show that each of the chiral backbone carbons lies at the center of a tetrahedron, with its 4 bonds pointing toward the vertices. Say the -C-C- bonds are rotated so that the backbone chain lies entirely in the plane of the diagram. From this flat schematic, it is not evident which of the phenyl (benzene) groups are angled toward us from the plane of the diagram, and which ones are angled away. The isomer where all of them are on the same side is called isotactic polystyrene, which is not produced commercially. Ordinary atactic polystyrene has these large phenyl groups randomly distributed on both sides of the chain. This random positioning prevents the chains from ever aligning with sufficient regularity to achieve any crystallinity, so the plastic has no melting temperature, Tm. But metallocene-catalyzed polymerization can produce an ordered syndiotactic polystyrene with the phenyl groups on alternating sides. This form is highly crystalline with a Tm of 270 °C.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Solid foam&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Expanded polysterene tray with tomato seedlings&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Expanded polystyrene packaging material&lt;br /&gt;Polystyrene's most common use is as expanded polystyrene (EPS). Expanded polystyrene is produced from a mixture of about 90-95% polystyrene and 5-10% gaseous blowing agent, most commonly pentane or carbon dioxide[4]. The solid plastic is expanded into a foam through the use of heat, usually steam.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Extruded polystyrene (XPS), which is different from expanded polystyrene (EPS), is commonly known by the trade name Styrofoam. The voids filled with trapped air give it low thermal conductivity. This makes it ideal as a construction material and it is therefore sometimes used in structural insulated panel building systems. It is also used as insulation in building structures, as molded packing material for cushioning fragile equipment inside boxes, as packing "peanuts", as non-weight-bearing architectural structures (such as pillars), and also in crafts and model building, particularly architectural models. Foamed between two sheets of paper, it makes a more-uniform substitute for corrugated cardboard, tradenamed Foamcore. A more unexpected use for the material is as a lightweight fill for embankments in the civil engineering industry.&lt;br /&gt;Expanded polystyrene used to contain CFCs, but other, more environmentally-safe blowing agents are now used. Because it is an aromatic hydrocarbon, it burns with an orange-yellow flame, giving off soot, as opposed to non-aromatic hydrocarbon polymers such as polyethylene, which burn with a light yellow flame (often with a blue tinge) and no soot.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Production methods include sheet stamping (PS) and injection molding (both PS and HIPS).&lt;br /&gt;The density of expanded polystyrene varies greatly from around 25 kg/m³ to 200 kg/m³ depending on how much gas was admixed to create the foam. A density of 200 kg/m³ is typical for the expanded polystyrene used in surfboards.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Standard markings&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The resin identification code symbol for polystyrene, developed by the Society of the Plastics Industry so that items can be labeled for easy recycling, is . However, the majority of polystyrene products are currently not recycled because of a lack of suitable recycling facilities. Furthermore, when it is "recycled," it is not a closed loop — polystyrene cups and other packaging materials are usually recycled into fillers in other plastics, or other items that cannot themselves be recycled and are thrown away.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Copolymers&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Structure of expanded polystyrene (microscope)&lt;br /&gt;Pure polystyrene is brittle, but hard enough that a fairly high-performance product can be made by giving it some of the properties of a stretchier material, such as polybutadiene rubber. The two such materials can never normally be mixed because of the amplified effect of intermolecular forces on polymer insolubility (see plastic recycling), but if polybutadiene is added during polymerization it can become chemically bonded to the polystyrene, forming a graft copolymer which helps to incorporate normal polybutadiene into the final mix, resulting in high-impact polystyrene or HIPS, often called "high-impact plastic" in advertisements. One commercial name for HIPS is Bextrene. Common applications include use in toys and product casings. HIPS is usually injection molded in production. Autoclaving polystyrene can compress and harden the material.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene or ABS plastic is similar to HIPS: a copolymer of acrylonitrile and styrene, toughened with polybutadiene. Most electronics cases are made of this form of polystyrene, as are many sewer pipes. ABS pipes may become brittle over time. SAN is a copolymer of styrene with acrylonitrile and SMA one with maleic anhydride. Styrene can be copolymerized with other monomers; for example, divinylbenzene for cross-linking the polystyrene chains.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Cutting and shaping&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Expanded polystyrene&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Expanded polystyrene is very easily cut with a hot-wire foam cutter, which is easily made by a heated taut length of wire, usually nichrome because of nichrome's resistance to oxidation at high temperatures and its suitable electrical conductivity. The hot wire foam cutter works by heating the wire to the point where it can vaporize foam immediately adjacent to it. The foam gets vaporized before actually touching the heated wire, which yields exceptionally smooth cuts.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Polystyrene, shaped and cut with hot wire foam cutters, is used in architecture models, actual signage, amusement parks, movie sets, airplane construction, and much more. Such cutters may cost just a few dollars (for a completely manual cutter) to tens of thousands of dollars for large CNC machines that can be used in high-volume industrial production.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Polystyrene can also be cut with a traditional cutter. In order to do this without ruining the sides of the blade one must first dip the blade in water and cut with the blade at an angle of about 30º. The procedure has to be repeated multiple times for best results.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Polystyrene can also be cut on 3 and 5-axis routers, enabling large-scale prototyping and model-making. Special polystyrene cutters are available that look more like large cylindrical rasps.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Use in biology&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Petri dishes and other containers such as test tubes, made of polystyrene, play an important role in biomedical research and science. For these uses, articles are almost always made by injection molding, and often sterilized post molding, either by irradiation or treatment with ethylene oxide. Post mold surface modification, usually with oxygen rich plasmas, is often done to introduce polar groups. Much of modern biomedical research relies on the use of such products; they therefore play a critical role in pharmaceutical research.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Finishing&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In the United States, environmental protection regulations prohibit the use of solvents on polystyrene (which would dissolve the polystyrene and de-foam most of foams anyway).&lt;br /&gt;Some acceptable finishing materials are&lt;br /&gt;• Water-based paint (artists have created paintings on polystyrene with gouache)&lt;br /&gt;• Mortar or acrylic/cement render, often used in the building industry as a weather-hard overcoat that hides the foam completely after finishing the objects.&lt;br /&gt;• Cotton wool or other fabrics used in conjunction with a stapling implement.&lt;br /&gt;[edit] Dangers and fire hazard&lt;br /&gt;Benzene, a material used in the production of polystyrene, is a known human carcinogen. Moreover, butadiene and styrene (in ABS), when combined, become benzene-like in both form and function.[citation needed]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;T&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;he EPA claims&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Styrene is primarily used in the production of polystyrene plastics and resins. Acute (short-term) exposure to styrene in humans results in mucous membrane and eye irritation, and gastrointestinal effects. Chronic (long-term) exposure to styrene in humans results in effects on the central nervous system (CNS), such as headache, fatigue, weakness, and depression, CSN dysfunction, hearing loss, and peripheral neuropathy. Human studies are inconclusive on the reproductive and developmental effects of styrene; several studies did not report an increase in developmental effects in women who worked in the plastics industry, while an increased frequency of spontaneous abortions and decreased frequency of births were reported in another study. Several epidemiologic studies suggest there may be an association between styrene exposure and an increased risk of leukemia and lymphoma. However, the evidence is inconclusive due to confounding factors. EPA has not given a formal carcinogen classification to styrene."&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Polystyrene is classified according to DIN4102 as a "B3" product, meaning highly flammable or "easily ignited". Consequently, though it is an efficient insulator at low temperatures, it is prohibited from being used in any exposed installations in building construction as long the material is not flame retarded e.g. with hexabromocyclododecane. It must be concealed behind drywall, sheet metal or concrete. Foamed plastic materials have been accidentally ignited and caused huge fires and losses. Examples include the Düsseldorf International Airport, the Channel tunnel, where it was inside a railcar and caught on fire, and the Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant, where fire reached through a fire retardant, reached the foamed plastic underneath, inside a firestop that had not been tested and certified in accordance with the final installation. In addition to fire hazard, substances that contain acetone (such as most aerosol paint sprays), and cyanoacrylate glues can dissolve polystyrene.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Environmental concerns and bans&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Expanded polystyrene is not easily recyclable because of its light weight and low scrap value. It is generally not accepted in curbside programs. Expanded polystyrene foam takes 900 years to decompose in the environment[citation needed] and has been documented to cause starvation in birds and other marine wildlife.[citation needed] According to the California Coastal Commission, it is a principal component of marine debris. Restricting the use of foamed polystyrene takeout food packaging is a priority of many solid waste environmentalist organizations, like Californians Against Waste.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The city of Berkeley, California was one of the first cities in the world to ban polystyrene food packaging (called Styrofoam in the media announcements). It was also banned in Portland, OR, and Suffolk County, NY in 1990. Now, over 20 US cities have banned polystyrene food packaging, including Oakland, CA on Jan 1st 2007. San Francisco introduced a ban on the packaging on June 1 2007&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"This is a long time coming. Polystyrene foam products rely on nonrenewable sources for production, are nearly indestructible and leave a legacy of pollution on our urban and natural environments. If McDonald's could see the light and phase out polystyrene foam more than a decade ago, it's about time San Francisco got with the program." Board of Supervisors President, Aaron Peskin&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The overall benefits of the ban in Portland have been questioned,as have the general environmental concepts of the use of paper versus polystyrene. A campaign to achieve the first ban of polystyrene foam from the food &amp;amp; beverage industry in Canada has been launched in Toronto as of January 2007, by local non-profit organization NaturoPack.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The California and New York legislatures are currently considering bills which would effectively ban expanded polystyrene in all takeout food packaging state-wide.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Explosives&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Polystyrene is used in some polymer-bonded explosives:&lt;br /&gt;Some Polystyrene PBX Examples&lt;br /&gt;Name Explosive Ingredients Binder Ingredients Usage&lt;br /&gt;PBX-9205 RDX 92%&lt;br /&gt;Polystyrene 6%; DOP 2% &lt;br /&gt;PBX-9007 RDX 90%&lt;br /&gt;Polystyrene 9.1%; DOP 0.5%; resin 0.4% &lt;br /&gt;It is also a component of Napalm and a component of most designs of hydrogen bombs.&lt;br /&gt;[edit] Cleaning&lt;br /&gt;Polystyrene can be dishwashed at 70 °C without deformation since it has a glass transition temperature of 95 °C&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;References&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1. ^ International Labour Organisation chemical safety card for polystyrene&lt;br /&gt;2. ^ A.K. van der Vegt &amp;amp; L.E. Govaert, Polymeren, van keten tot kunstof, ISBN 90-407-2388-5&lt;br /&gt;3. ^ The history of plastics&lt;br /&gt;4. ^ process plastics Moulding Expanded Polystyrene&lt;br /&gt;5. ^ Expanded polystyrene civil engineering products for roads, bridges and culverts: Vencel Resil&lt;br /&gt;6. ^ Jed Norton. "Blue Foam, Pink Foam and Foam Board". Antenociti's Workshop. Retrieved on 2008-01-29.&lt;br /&gt;7. ^ Styrene | Technology Transfer Network Air Toxics Web site | US EPA&lt;br /&gt;8. ^ "Business Gives Styrofoam a Rare Redemption.", Stockton Record (21 September 2007). Retrieved on 2007-10-09.&lt;br /&gt;9. ^ The Berkeley Daily Planet&lt;br /&gt;10. ^ Styrofoam food packaging banned in Oakland&lt;br /&gt;11. ^ Californians Against Waste website&lt;br /&gt;12. ^ San Francisco Chronical article, June 28, 2006&lt;br /&gt;13. ^ San Francisco Chronical article, November 7, 2006&lt;br /&gt;14. ^ San Francisco Chronical Article, June 27, 2006&lt;br /&gt;15. ^ Eckhardt, Angela (November, 1998). "Paper Waste: Why Portland's Ban on Polystyrene Foam Products Has Been a Costly Failure". Cascade Policy Institute. Retrieved on 2007-10-23.&lt;br /&gt;16. ^ Thomas, Robert A. (March 8, 2005). "Where Might We Look for Environmental Heroes?". Center for Environmental Communications, Loyola University, New Orleans. Retrieved on 2007-10-23.&lt;br /&gt;17. ^ Naturopack Campaign Page&lt;br /&gt;18. ^ AB 904&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;source : &lt;a href="http://wikipedia.org"&gt;wikipedia.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-750446562317244634?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/750446562317244634/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/polyphenylethene.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/750446562317244634'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/750446562317244634'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/polyphenylethene.html' title='Polyphenylethene'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-2670790183998470047</id><published>2010-05-04T05:16:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2010-05-04T05:19:53.759-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Industri Kulit dan Plastik'/><title type='text'>Soal dan Jawaban UAS Karet dan Plastik</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;1. Natural polymers are available in nature. Could you write several examples of natural polymers and their applications (UAS no 1 090824)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Jawab:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Silk: is applied mainly for expensive textiles&lt;br /&gt;Natural rubber: is applied for many different industrial application such as tires, gaskets, belts etc&lt;br /&gt;Wool: is applied mainly for textiles, jackets and winter clothes&lt;br /&gt;Wood: is applied for furniture, timber and construction&lt;br /&gt;Celluloses: are applied for paper, food etc&lt;br /&gt;Starches: are applied for food and recently it is used for fuel as well&lt;br /&gt;Proteins:  are mainly for food&lt;br /&gt;etc&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2. When thermal energy is applied on polymer materials, they will show two different effects that are thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers. Could you explain what thermoplastic and thermosetting are and what is the different between them? (UAS no 2 090824)&lt;br /&gt;Thermoplastic polymers: They can be softened or plasticized repeatedly on application of thermal energy, without much change in properties if treated with certain precautions, e.g. polyolefins, polystyrene, nylons, linear polyesters and polyethers, poly vinyl chloride, etc. They normally remain soluble and fusible after many cycles of heating and cooling. Thermoplastic polymers can normally be recycled.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Thermosetting polymers: They can be obtained in soluble and fusible forms in early or intermediate stages of theirs synthesis, but they get set or cured and become insoluble and infusible when further heated or thermally treated, the curing or setting process involves chemical reactions leading to further growth and cross linking of the polymer chain molecules and producing giant molecules, e.g. phenolic resins, urea/melamine resins, epoxy resins, diene rubbers, unsaturated polyesthers, etc.. Thermosetting polymers cannot normally be recycled.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3. Could you explain different kind of plastics and their application in the daily life? (UAS no 3 090824)&lt;br /&gt;Polyethylene: is widely used in daily life such as moulded or formed objects, films, sheets, bottles and containers, pipes and tubes, and in wire insulation and cables.&lt;br /&gt;Polypropylene: is used in the form of moulded and formed objects, sheets and films, bristles, monofilaments and fibres, covering such items as luggage, frames containers and different packaging items, ropes, textiles, tows and nets, pipes and tubes, etc&lt;br /&gt;Polystyrene is used in packaging and shock absorbing application, in thermal insulation, and as acoustic improvers in hall and auditoria&lt;br /&gt;Polymethil methacrylate is used for automotive tail lamp and signal light lenses, jewellery, lense of optical equipment and contact lenses&lt;br /&gt;Polyvinylchloride is used in chemical plants and equipments, storage tanks, building items, pipes, sheets, specific moulded objects and containers&lt;br /&gt;Dst&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;4. Could you explain advantages and disadvantages of both natural and synthetic rubbers? Please, write down several examples of synthetic rubbers? (UAS no 4 090824)&lt;br /&gt;Natural rubber:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Advantages:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;• Flexible&lt;br /&gt;• Elastic&lt;br /&gt;• Environmental friendly (biodegradable)&lt;br /&gt;• Raw material is easy to get&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Disadvantages:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;• Normally weaker then synthetic rubber&lt;br /&gt;• Less consistent due to the season and place&lt;br /&gt;• More expensive&lt;br /&gt;• Easy to react&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Synthetic rubber:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="display: block;" id="formatbar_Buttons"&gt;&lt;span class="on down" style="display: block;" id="formatbar_Bold" title="Bold" onmouseover="ButtonHoverOn(this);" onmouseout="ButtonHoverOff(this);" onmouseup="" onmousedown="CheckFormatting(event);FormatbarButton('richeditorframe', this, 3);ButtonMouseDown(this);"&gt;&lt;img src="img/blank.gif" alt="Bold" class="gl_bold" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Advantages:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;• Strong&lt;br /&gt;• Large range of synthetic material&lt;br /&gt;• Consistent&lt;br /&gt;• Cheaper&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Disadvantages:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;• Less flexible&lt;br /&gt;• less elastic&lt;br /&gt;• Fracture&lt;br /&gt;• Not environmental friendly (non biodegradable material)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Examples of synthetic rubbers:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR), Polychloroprene Rubber (CR), Nitrile Butadiene Rubber (NBR), Isobutyl rubber (IIR), Ethylene Propylene Diene Terpolymer (EPDM), Polysulphide rubber (PSR) dst&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-2670790183998470047?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/2670790183998470047/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/soal-dan-jawaban-uas-karet-dan-plastik.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/2670790183998470047'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/2670790183998470047'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/soal-dan-jawaban-uas-karet-dan-plastik.html' title='Soal dan Jawaban UAS Karet dan Plastik'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-4030981825479778588</id><published>2010-05-04T05:07:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2010-05-04T05:14:27.010-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Industri Kulit dan Plastik'/><title type='text'>Polyethylene</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Polyethylene or polythene (IUPAC name poly(ethene)) is a thermoplastic commodity heavily used in consumer products (notably the plastic shopping bag). Over 60 million tons of the material are produced worldwide every year.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Description&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Polyethylene is a polymer consisting of long chains of the monomer ethylene (IUPAC name ethene). The recommended scientific name polyethene is systematically derived from the scientific name of the monomer. In certain circumstances it is useful to use a structure–based nomenclature. In such cases IUPAC recommends poly(methylene). The difference is due to the opening up of the monomer's double bond upon polymerisation.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In the polymer industry the name is sometimes shortened to PE in a manner similar to that by which other polymers like polypropylene and polystyrene are shortened to PP and PS respectively. In the United Kingdom the polymer is commonly called polythene, although this is not recognised scientifically. The ethene molecule (known almost universally by its common name ethylene) C2H4 is CH2=CH2, Two CH2 groups connected by a double bond, thus:&lt;br /&gt;       &lt;br /&gt;Polyethylene is created through polymerization of ethene. It can be produced through radical polymerization, anionic addition polymerization, ion coordination polymerization or cationic addition polymerization. This is because ethene does not have any substituent groups that influence the stability of the propagation head of the polymer. Each of these methods results in a different type of polyethylene.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Classification&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Polyethylene is classified into several different categories based mostly on its density and branching. The mechanical properties of PE depend significantly on variables such as the extent and type of branching, the crystal structure and the molecular weight.&lt;br /&gt;• Ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE)&lt;br /&gt;• Ultra low molecular weight polyethylene (ULMWPE - PE-WAX)&lt;br /&gt;• High molecular weight polyethylene (HMWPE)&lt;br /&gt;• High density polyethylene (HDPE)&lt;br /&gt;• High density cross-linked polyethylene (HDXLPE)&lt;br /&gt;• Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX)&lt;br /&gt;• Medium density polyethylene (MDPE)&lt;br /&gt;• Low density polyethylene (LDPE)&lt;br /&gt;• Linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE)&lt;br /&gt;• Very low density polyethylene (VLDPE)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;UHMWPE is polyethylene with a molecular weight numbering in the millions, usually between 3.1 and 5.67 million. The high molecular weight results in less efficient packing of the chains into the crystal structure as evidenced by densities of less than high density polyethylene (for example, 0.930–0.935 g/cm3). The high molecular weight results in a very tough material. UHMWPE can be made through any catalyst technology, although Ziegler catalysts are most common. Because of its outstanding toughness and its cut, wear and excellent chemical resistance, UHMWPE is used in a wide diversity of applications. These include can and bottle handling machine parts, moving parts on weaving machines, bearings, gears, artificial joints, edge protection on ice rinks and butchers' chopping boards. It competes with Aramid in bulletproof vests, under the tradenames Spectra and Dyneema, and is commonly used for the construction of articular portions of implants used for hip and knee replacements.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;HDPE is defined by a density of greater or equal to 0.941 g/cm3. HDPE has a low degree of branching and thus stronger intermolecular forces and tensile strength. HDPE can be produced by chromium/silica catalysts, Ziegler-Natta catalysts or metallocene catalysts. The lack of branching is ensured by an appropriate choice of catalyst (for example, chromium catalysts or Ziegler-Natta catalysts) and reaction conditions. HDPE is used in products and packaging such as milk jugs, detergent bottles, margarine tubs, garbage containers and water pipes.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;PEX is a medium- to high-density polyethylene containing cross-link bonds introduced into the polymer structure, changing the thermoplast into an elastomer. The high-temperature properties of the polymer are improved, its flow is reduced and its chemical resistance is enhanced. PEX is used in some potable-water plumbing systems because tubes made of the material can be expanded to fit over a metal nipple and it will slowly return to its original shape, forming a permanent, water-tight, connection.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;MDPE is defined by a density range of 0.926–0.940 g/cm3. MDPE can be produced by chromium/silica catalysts, Ziegler-Natta catalysts or metallocene catalysts. MDPE has good shock and drop resistance properties. It also is less notch sensitive than HDPE, stress cracking resistance is better than HDPE. MDPE is typically used in gas pipes and fittings, sacks, shrink film, packaging film, carrier bags and screw closures.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;LLDPE is defined by a density range of 0.915–0.925 g/cm3. LLDPE is a substantially linear polymer with significant numbers of short branches, commonly made by copolymerization of ethylene with short-chain alpha-olefins (for example, 1-butene, 1-hexene and 1-octene). LLDPE has higher tensile strength than LDPE, it exhibits higher impact and puncture resistance than LDPE. Lower thickness (gauge) films can be blown, compared with LDPE, with better environmental stress cracking resistance but is not as easy to process. LLDPE is used in packaging, particularly film for bags and sheets. Lower thickness may be used compared to LDPE. Cable covering, toys, lids, buckets, containers and pipe. While other applications are available, LLDPE is used predominantly in film applications due to its toughness, flexibility and relative transparency.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;LDPE is defined by a density range of 0.910–0.940 g/cm3. LDPE has a high degree of short and long chain branching, which means that the chains do not pack into the crystal structure as well. It has, therefore, less strong intermolecular forces as the instantaneous-dipole induced-dipole attraction is less. This results in a lower tensile strength and increased ductility. LDPE is created by free radical polymerization. The high degree of branching with long chains gives molten LDPE unique and desirable flow properties. LDPE is used for both rigid containers and plastic film applications such as plastic bags and film wrap.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;VLDPE is defined by a density range of 0.880–0.915 g/cm3. VLDPE is a substantially linear polymer with high levels of short-chain branches, commonly made by copolymerization of ethylene with short-chain alpha-olefins (for example, 1-butene, 1-hexene and 1-octene). VLDPE is most commonly produced using metallocene catalysts due to the greater co-monomer incorporation exhibited by these catalysts. VLDPEs are used for hose and tubing, ice and frozen food bags, food packaging and stretch wrap as well as impact modifiers when blended with other polymers.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Recently much research activity has focused on the nature and distribution of long chain branches in polyethylene. In HDPE a relatively small number of these branches, perhaps 1 in 100 or 1,000 branches per backbone carbon, can significantly affect the rheological properties of the polymer.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Ethylene copolymers&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In addition to copolymerization with alpha-olefins, ethylene can also be copolymerized with a wide range of other monomers and ionic composition that creates ionized free radicals. Common examples include vinyl acetate (the resulting product is ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer, or EVA, widely used in athletic-shoe sole foams) and a variety of acrylates (applications include packaging and sporting goods).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;History&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Polyethylene was first synthesized by the German chemist Hans von Pechmann who prepared it by accident in 1898 while heating diazomethane. When his colleagues Eugen Bamberger and Friedrich Tschirner characterized the white, waxy, substance that he had created they recognized that it contained long -CH2- chains and termed it polymethylene.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The first industrially practical polyethylene synthesis was discovered (again by accident) in 1933 by Eric Fawcett and Reginald Gibson at the ICI works in Northwich, England. Upon applying extremely high pressure (several hundred atmospheres) to a mixture of ethylene and benzaldehyde they again produced a white, waxy, material. Because the reaction had been initiated by trace oxygen contamination in their apparatus the experiment was, at first, difficult to reproduce. It was not until 1935 that another ICI chemist, Michael Perrin, developed this accident into a reproducible high-pressure synthesis for polyethylene that became the basis for industrial LDPE production beginning in 1939.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Subsequent landmarks in polyethylene synthesis have revolved around the development of several types of catalyst that promote ethylene polymerization at more mild temperatures and pressures. The first of these was a chromium trioxide-based catalyst discovered in 1951 by Robert Banks and J. Paul Hogan at Phillips Petroleum. In 1953 the German chemist Karl Ziegler developed a catalytic system based on titanium halides and organoaluminium compounds that worked at even milder conditions than the Phillips catalyst. The Phillips catalyst is less expensive and easier to work with, however, and both methods are used in industrial practice.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;By the end of the 1950s both the Phillips- and Ziegler-type catalysts were being used for HDPE production. Phillips initially had difficulties producing a HDPE product of uniform quality and filled warehouses with off-specification plastic. However, financial ruin was unexpectedly averted in 1957 when the hula hoop, a toy consisting of a circular polyethylene tube, became a fad among youth in the United States.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A third type of catalytic system, one based on metallocenes, was discovered in 1976 in Germany by Walter Kaminsky and Hansjörg Sinn. The Ziegler and metallocene catalyst families have since proven to be very flexible at copolymerizing ethylene with other olefins and have become the basis for the wide range of polyethylene resins available today, including very low-density polyethylene and linear low-density polyethylene. Such resins, in the form of fibers like Dyneema, have (as of 2005) begun to replace aramids in many high-strength applications.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Until recently the metallocenes were the most active single-site catalysts for ethylene polymerisation known—new catalysts are typically compared to zirconocene dichloride. Much effort is currently being exerted on developing new, single-site (so-called post-metallocene) catalysts that may allow greater tuning of the polymer structure than is possible with metallocenes. Recently work by Fujita at the Mitsui corporation (amongst others) has demonstrated that certain salicylaldimine complexes of Group 4 metals show substantially higher activity than the metallocenes.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;P&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;hysical properties&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Depending on the crystallinity and molecular weight, a melting point and glass transition may or may not be observable. The temperature at which these occur varies strongly with the type of polyethylene. For common commercial grades of medium- and high-density polyethylene the melting point is typically in the range 120 to 130 °C ((250 to 265 °F). The melting point for average, commercial, low-density polyethylene is typically 105 to 115 °C (220 to 240 °F).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Most LDPE, MDPE and HDPE grades have excellent chemical resistance and do not dissolve at room temperature because of their crystallinity. Polyethylene (other than cross-linked polyethylene) usually can be dissolved at elevated temperatures in aromatic hydrocarbons such as toluene or xylene, or in chlorinated solvents such as trichloroethane or trichlorobenzene.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Environmental issues&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The wide use of polyethylene makes it an important environmental issue. Though it can be recycled, most of the commercial polyethylene ends up in landfills and in the oceans (notably the Great Pacific Garbage Patch). Polyethylene is not considered biodegradable, as it takes several centuries until it is efficiently degraded. Recently (May 2008) Daniel Burd, a 16 year old Canadian, won the Canada-Wide Science Fair in Ottawa after discovering that Sphingomonas, a type of bacteria, can degrade over 40% of the weight of plastic bags in less than three months. The applicability of this finding is still a matter for the future.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;References&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1. ^ A Guide to IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Compounds, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford (1993).&lt;br /&gt;2. ^ a b J. KAHOVEC, R. B. FOX and K. HATADA; “Nomenclature of regular single-strand organic polymers (IUPAC Recommendations 2002);” Pure and Applied Chemistry; IUPAC; 2002; 74 (10): pp. 1921–1956.&lt;br /&gt;3. ^ "Winnington history in the making". This is Cheshire. Retrieved on 2006-12-05.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;source : &lt;a href="http://wikipedia.org"&gt;wikipedia.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-4030981825479778588?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/4030981825479778588/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/polyethylene.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/4030981825479778588'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/4030981825479778588'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/polyethylene.html' title='Polyethylene'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-6545993381867543809</id><published>2010-05-04T04:58:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2010-05-04T05:05:56.953-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Industri Kulit'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Karet dan Plastik'/><title type='text'>Natural Rubber</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Natural rubber is an elastic hydrocarbon polymer that naturally occurs as a milky colloidal suspension, or latex, in the sap of some plants. It can also be synthesized. The entropy model of rubber was developed in 1934 by Werner Kuhn. The scientific name for the rubber tree is Hevea brasiliensis.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Explanation&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The major commercial source of natural rubber latex is the Para rubber tree, Hevea brasiliensis (Euphorbiaceae). This is largely because it responds to wounding by producing more latex. Henry Wickham gathered thousands of seeds from Brazil in 1876 and they were germinated in Kew Gardens, England. The seedlings were sent to Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Indonesia, Singapore and British Malaya. Malaya(now Malaysia) was later to become the biggest producer of rubber. Liberia and Nigeria are examples of African rubber-producing countries.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Other plants containing latex include figs (Ficus elastica), Castilla (Panama rubber tree), euphorbias, lettuce, the common dandelion and specially Taraxacum kok-saghyz (Russian dandelion) contains good quantities, Scorzonera tau-saghyz and Guayule. Although these have not been major sources of rubber, Germany attempted to use some of these sources during World War II when it was cut off from rubber supplies[citation needed]. These attempts were later supplanted by the development of synthetic rubber.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Synthetic rubbers are made by the polymerization of a single monomer or a mixture of monomers to produce polymers. These form part of a broad range of products extensively studied by polymer science and rubber technology. Examples are SBR, or styrene-butadiene rubber, BR or butadiene rubber, CR or chloroprene rubber and EPDM (ethylene-propylene-diene rubber).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;History&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Charles Marie de La Condamine is credited with introducing samples of rubber to the Académie Royale des Sciences of France in 1736.[1] In 1751 he presented a paper by François Fresneau to the Académie (eventually published in 1755) which described many of the properties of rubber. This has been referred to as the first scientific paper on rubber.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The first European to return to Portugal from Brazil with samples of such water-repellent rubberized cloth so shocked people that he was brought to court on the charge of witchcraft.&lt;br /&gt;When samples of rubber first arrived in England, it was observed by Joseph Priestley, in 1770, that a piece of the material was extremely good for rubbing out pencil marks on paper, hence the name "rubber".&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The para rubber tree initially grew in South America, where it was the main source of what limited amount of latex rubber was consumed during much of the 19th century. About 100 years ago, the Congo Free State in Africa was a significant source of natural rubber latex, mostly gathered by forced labor. After repeated efforts (see Henry Wickham) rubber was successfully cultivated in Southeast Asia, where it is now widely grown.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In India commercial cultivation of natural rubber was introduced by the British Planters, although the experimental efforts to grow rubber on a commercial scale in India were initiated as early as 1873 at the Botanical Gardens, Kolkata. The first commercial Hevea plantations in India were established at Thattekadu in Kerala in 1902.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Rubbe&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;r latex.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Rubber exhibits unique physical and chemical properties. Rubber's stress-strain behavior exhibits the Mullins effect, the Payne effect and is often modeled as hyperelastic. Rubber strain crystallizes. Owing to the presence of a double bond in each and every repeat unit, natural rubber is sensitive to ozone cracking&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Chemical makeup&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Aside from a few natural product impurities, natural rubber is essentially a polymer of isoprene units, a hydrocarbon diene monomer. Synthetic rubber can be made as a polymer of isoprene or various other monomers. The material properties of natural rubber make it an elastomer and a thermoplastic. However it should be noted that as the rubber is vulcanized it will turn into a thermoset. Most rubber in everyday use is vulcanized to a point where it shares properties of both; i.e., if it is heated and cooled, it is degraded but not destroyed.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Elasticity&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In most elastic materials, such as metals used in springs, the elastic behavior is caused by bond distortions. When force is applied, bond lengths deviate from the (minimum energy) equilibrium and strain energy is stored electrostatically. Rubber is often assumed to behave in the same way, but it turns out this is a poor description. Rubber is a curious material because, unlike metals, strain energy is stored thermally.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In its relaxed state rubber consists of long, coiled-up polymer chains that are interlinked at a few points. Between a pair of links each monomer can rotate freely about its neighbour. This gives each section of chain leeway to assume a large number of geometries, like a very loose rope attached to a pair of fixed points. At room temperature rubber stores enough kinetic energy so that each section of chain oscillates chaotically, like the above piece of rope being shaken violently.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;When rubber is stretched the "loose pieces of rope" are taut and thus no longer able to oscillate. Their kinetic energy is given off as excess heat. Therefore, the entropy decreases when going from the relaxed to the stretched state, and it increases during relaxation. This change in entropy can also be explained by the fact that a tight section of chain can fold in fewer ways (W) than a loose section of chain, at a given temperature (nb. entropy is defined as S=k*ln(W)). Relaxation of a stretched rubber band is thus driven by an increase in entropy, and the force experienced is not electrostatic, rather it is a result of the thermal energy of the material being converted to kinetic energy. Rubber relaxation is endothermic, and for this reason the force exerted by a stretched piece of rubber increases with temperature (metals, for example, become softer as temperature increases). The material undergoes adiabatic cooling during contraction. This property of rubber can easily be verified by holding a stretched rubber band to your lips and relaxing it.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Stretching of a rubber band is in some ways equivalent to the compression of an ideal gas, and relaxation in equivalent to its expansion. Note that a compressed gas also exhibits "elastic" properties, for instance inside an inflated car tire. The fact that stretching is equivalent to compression may seem somewhat counter-intuitive, but it makes sense if rubber is viewed as a one-dimensional gas. Stretching reduces the "space" available to each section of chain.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Vulcanization of rubber creates more disulfide bonds between chains so it makes each free section of chain shorter. The result is that the chains tighten more quickly for a given length of strain. This increases the elastic force constant and makes rubber harder and less extendable.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;When cooled below the glass transition temperature, the quasi-fluid chain segments "freeze" into fixed geometries and the rubber abruptly loses its elastic properties, though the process is reversible. This is a property it shares with most elastomers. At very cold temperatures rubber is actually rather brittle; it will break into shards when struck or stretched. This critical temperature is the reason that winter tires use a softer version of rubber than normal tires. The failing rubber o-ring seals that contributed to the cause of the Challenger disaster were thought to have cooled below their critical temperature. The disaster happened on an unusually cold day.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Current sources&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Close to 21 million tons of rubber were produced in 2005 of which around 42% was natural. Since the bulk of the rubber produced is the synthetic variety which is derived from petroleum, the price of even natural rubber is determined to a very large extent by the prevailing global price of crude oil[citation needed]. Today Asia is the main source of natural rubber, accounting for around 94% of output in 2005. The three largest producing countries (Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand) together account for around 72% of all natural rubber production.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Cultivation&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Rubber is generally cultivated in large plantations. See the coconut shell used in collecting latex, in plantations in Kerala. Rubber latex is extracted from Rubber trees. The economic life period of rubber trees in plantations is around 32 years – 7 years of immature phase and about 25 years of productive phase.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The soil requirement of the plant is generally well-drained weathered soil consisting of laterite, lateritic types, sedimentary types, nonlateritic red or alluvial soils.&lt;br /&gt;The climatic conditions for optimum growth of Rubber tree consist of (a) Rainfall of around 250 cm evenly distributed without any marked dry season and with at least 100 rainy days per annum (b) Temperature range of about 20°C to 34°C with a monthly mean of 25°C to 28°C (c) High atmospheric humidity of around 80% (d) Bright sunshine amounting to about 2000 hours per annum at the rate of 6 hours per day throughout the year and (e) Absence of strong winds.&lt;br /&gt;Many high-yielding clones have been developed for commercial planting. These clones yield more than 1,500 Kilogrammes of dry Rubber per hectare (or, over 4 tons per acre), per annum, when grown under ideal conditions&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Collection&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A tree woman in Sri Lanka in the process of harvesting rubber. In places like Kerala, where coconuts are in abundance, the shell of half a coconut is used as the collection container for the latex. The shells are attached to the tree via a short sharp stick and the latex drips down into it overnight. This usually produces latex up to a level of half to three quarters of the shell.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The latex can be either collected in its liquid state, in which case ammonia solution can be added to the collecting cup prior to tapping in order to prevent natural coagulation, or it can be left in the field to coagulate into a cup lump.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Latex is generally processed into either latex concentrate for manufacture of dipped goods or it can be coagulated under controlled, clean conditions using formic acid. The coagulated latex can then be processed into the higher grade technically specified block rubbers such as TSR3L or TSRCV or used to produce Ribbed Smoke Sheet grades.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Naturally coagulated rubber (cup lump) is used in the manufacture of TSR10 and TSR20 grade rubbers. The processing of the rubber for these grades is basically a size reduction and cleaning process in order to remove contamination and prepare the material for the final stage drying. The dried material is then baled and palletized for shipment.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Uses&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The use of rubber is widespread, ranging from household to industrial products, entering the production stream at the intermediate stage or as final products. Tires and tubes are the largest consumers of rubber, accounting for around 56% total consumption in 2005. The remaining 44% are taken up by the general rubber goods (GRG) sector, which includes all products except tires and tubes.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Other significant uses of rubber are door and window profiles, hoses, belts, matting, flooring and dampeners (anti-vibration mounts) for the automotive industry in what is known as the "under the bonnet" products. Gloves (medical, household and industrial) are also large consumers of rubber and toy balloons, although the type of rubber used is that of the concentrated latex. Significant tonnage of rubber is used as adhesives in many manufacturing industries and products, although the two most noticeable are the paper and the carpet industry. Rubber is also commonly used to make rubber bands and pencil erasers.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Additionally, rubber produced as a fiber sometimes called elastic, has significant value for use in the textile industry because of its excellent elongation and recovery properties. For these purposes, manufactured rubber fiber is made as either an extruded round fiber or rectangular fibers that are cut into strips from extruded film. Because of its low dye acceptance, feel and appearance, the rubber fiber is either covered by yarn of another fiber or directly woven with other yarns into the fabric. In the early 1900’s, for example, rubber yarns were used in foundation garments. While rubber is still used in textile manufacturing, its low tenacity limits its use in lightweight garments because latex lacks resistance to oxidizing agents and is damaged by aging, sunlight, oil, and perspiration. Seeking a way to address these shortcomings, the textile industry has turned to Neoprene (polymer form of Chloroprene), a type of synthetic rubber as well as another more commonly used elastomer fiber, spandex (also known as elastane), because of their superiority to rubber in both strength and durability.&lt;br /&gt;Hypoallergenic rubber can be made from Guayule.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Early experiments in the development of synthetic rubber also led to the invention of Silly Putty.&lt;br /&gt;Natural rubber is often vulcanized, a process by which the rubber is heated and sulfur, peroxide or bisphenol are added to improve resilience and elasticity, and to prevent it from perishing. Vulcanization greatly improved the durability and utility of rubber from the 1830s on. The successful development of vulcanization is most closely associated with Charles Goodyear. Carbon black is often used as an additive to rubber to improve its strength, especially in vehicle tires.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;References&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1. ^ a b http://www.bouncing-balls.com/timeline/people/nr_condamine.htm&lt;br /&gt;• Rubbery Materials and their Compounds by J.A Brydson&lt;br /&gt;• Rubber Technology by Maurice Morton&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;source : &lt;a href="http://wikipedia.org/"&gt;wikipedia.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-6545993381867543809?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/6545993381867543809/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/natural-ruber.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/6545993381867543809'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/6545993381867543809'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/natural-ruber.html' title='Natural Rubber'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-3848207349617569860</id><published>2010-05-04T04:43:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2010-05-04T04:50:57.286-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Industri Kulit'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Karet dan Plastik'/><title type='text'>Latex</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Latex refers generically to a stable dispersion (emulsion) of polymer microparticles in an aqueous medium. Latexes may be natural or synthetic. Latex as found in nature is a milky sap-like fluid within many plants that coagulates on exposure to air. It is a complex emulsion in which proteins, alkaloids, starches, sugars, oils, tannins, resins, and gums are found. In most plants, latex is white, but some have yellow, orange, or scarlet latex.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The word is also used to refer to natural latex rubber; particularly for non-vulcanized rubber. Such is the case in products like latex gloves, latex condoms and latex clothing. It can also be made synthetically by polymerizing a monomer that has been emulsified with surfactants.&lt;br /&gt;The term latex is attributed to Charles Marie de la Condamine, who derived it from Latin latex, fluid.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Sources&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The cells or vessels in which latex is found make up the laticiferous system, which forms in two very different ways. In many plants, the laticiferous system is formed from rows of cells laid down in the meristem of the stem or root. The cell walls between these cells are dissolved so that continuous tubes, called latex vessels, are formed. This method of formation is found in the poppy family, in the rubber trees (Para rubber tree and Castilla elastica), and in the Cichorieae, a section of the Family Asteraceae distinguished by the presence of latex in its members. Dandelion, lettuce, hawkweed, and salsify are members of the Cichorieae. It is also present in another member of the Asteraceae, the guayule plant.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In the milkweed and spurge families, on the other hand, the laticiferous system is formed quite differently. Early in the development of the seedling latex cells differentiate, and as the plant grows these latex cells grow into a branching system extending throughout the plant. In the mature plant, the entire laticiferous system is descended from a single cell or group of cells present in the embryo.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The laticiferous system is present in all parts of the mature plant, including roots, stems, leaves, and sometimes the fruits. It is particularly noticeable in the cortical tissues.&lt;br /&gt;Several members of the fungal kingdom also produce latex upon injury. Notable are the milk-caps such as Lactarius deliciosus.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Natural function of latex&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;This article is missing citations or needs footnotes. Please help add inline citations to guard against copyright violations and factual inaccuracies. (May 2008)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Rubber latex&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Many plant functions have been attributed to latex. Some regard it as a form of stored food, while others consider it an excretory product in which waste products of the plant are deposited. Still others believe it functions to protect the plant in case of injuries; drying to form a protective layer that prevents the entry of fungi and bacteria. Similarly, it may provide some protection against browsing animals, since in some plants latex is very bitter or even poisonous. It may be that latex fulfills all of these functions to varying degrees in the numerous plant species in which it occurs.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;U&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;ses of latex&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The latex of many species can be processed to produce other materials. Natural rubber is the most important product obtained from latex; more than 12,000 plant species yield latex containing rubber, though in the vast majority of those species the rubber is not suitable for commercial use.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Balatá and gutta percha latex contain an inelastic polymer related to rubber. Latex from the chicle and jelutong trees is used in chewing gum. Poppy latex is a source of opium and its many derivatives. Latex is also used to make gloves, catheters, condoms, balloons, and many other products as well.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Latex clothing&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Main article: Latex clothing. Latex is used in many types of clothing. Worn on the body (or applied directly by painting) it tends to be skin-tight, producing a "second skin" effect.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt; Allergic reactions&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Main article: Latex allergy. Some people have a serious latex allergy, and exposure to latex products such as latex gloves can cause anaphylactic shock. Guayule latex is hypoallergenic and is being researched as a substitute to the allergy-inducing Hevea latexes. Many people with spina bifida are also allergic to natural latex rubber, as well as people who have had multiple surgeries, and people who have had prolonged exposure to natural latex.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;source : &lt;a href="http://wikipedia.org"&gt;wikipedia.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-3848207349617569860?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/3848207349617569860/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/latex.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/3848207349617569860'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/3848207349617569860'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/latex.html' title='Latex'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-7498228492058283665</id><published>2010-05-04T04:31:00.002-07:00</published><updated>2010-05-04T04:42:01.202-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Industri Kulit dan Plastik'/><title type='text'>Epoxy Resin</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;In chemistry, epoxy or polyepoxide is a thermosetting epoxide polymer that cures (polymerizes and crosslinks) when mixed with a catalyzing agent or "hardener". Most common epoxy resins are produced from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A. The first commercial attempts to prepare resins from epichlorohydrin were made in 1927 in the United States. Credit for the first synthesis of bisphenol-A-based epoxy resins is shared by Dr. Pierre Castan of Switzerland and Dr. S.O. Greenlee of the United States in 1936. Dr. Castan's work was licensed by Ciba, Ltd. of Switzerland, which went on to become one of the three major epoxy resin producers worldwide. Ciba's epoxy business was spun off and later sold in the late 1990s and is now the advanced materials business unit of Huntsman Corporation of the United States. Dr. Greenlee's work was for the firm of Devoe-Reynolds of the United States. Devoe-Reynolds, which was active in the early days of the epoxy resin industry, was sold to Shell Chemical (now Hexion, formerly Resolution Polymers and others).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Industry&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;As of 2006, the epoxy industry amounts to more than US$5 billion in North America and about US$15 billion world-wide. The Chinese market has been growing rapidly, and the market size is more than 30% of the total worldwide market. It is made up of approximately 50–100 manufacturers of basic or commodity epoxy resins and hardeners of which the three largest are Hexion (formerly Resolution Performance Products, formerly Shell Development Company; whose epoxy tradename is "Epon"), The Dow Chemical Company (tradename "D.E.R."), and Huntsman Corporation's Advanced Materials business unit (formerly Vantico, formerly Ciba Specialty Chemical; tradename "Araldite"). In 2007 Huntsman Corporation agreed to merge with Hexion (owned by the Apollo Group)[1][2]. KUKDO Chemical is one of the largest epoxy manufacturers in Asia, and recently their capacity has been increased up to 210,000 MT/Y (Korea 150,000 MT/Y, China 60,000 MT/Y and will be increased totally 300,000 MT/Y by 2009). Nanya Plastic also has the capacity of over 250,000 MT/Y (Taiwan and China), which is mostly for captive use. There are over 50 smaller epoxy manufacturers primarily producing epoxies only regionally, epoxy hardeners only, specialty epoxies, or epoxy modifiers.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;These commodity epoxy manufacturers mentioned above typically do not sell epoxy resins in a form usable to smaller end users, so there is another group of companies that purchase epoxy raw materials from the major producers and then compounds (blends, modifies, or otherwise customizes) epoxy systems from these raw materials. These companies are known as "formulators". The majority of the epoxy systems sold are produced by these formulators and they comprise over 60% of the dollar value of the epoxy market. There are hundreds of ways that these formulators can modify epoxies—by adding mineral fillers (talc, silica, alumina, etc.), by adding flexibilizers, viscosity reducers, colorants, thickeners, accelerators, adhesion promoters, etc. These modifications are made to reduce costs, to improve performance, and to improve processing convenience. As a result a typical formulator sells dozens or even thousands of formulations—each tailored to the requirements of a particular application or market.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass reinforcements (although polyester, vinyl ester, and other thermosetting resins are also used for glass-reinforced plastic). The chemistry of epoxies and the range of commercially available variations allows cure polymers to be produced with a very broad range of properties. In general, epoxies are known for their excellent adhesion, chemical and heat resistance, good-to-excellent mechanical properties and very good electrical insulating properties. Many properties of epoxies can be modified (for example silver-filled epoxies with good electrical conductivity are available, although epoxies are typically electrically insulating).&lt;br /&gt;Epoxies find significant use in many applications which are described in following sections.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Paints and coatings&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"2 part waterborne epoxy coatings" are used as ambient cure epoxy coatings. These non-HAP, two-part epoxy coatings are developed for heavy duty service on metal substrates and use less energy than heat cured powder coatings. These systems use a more attractive 4:1 by volume mixing ratio. The coating dries quickly providing a tough, UV resistant, protective coating with excellent ultimate hardness, and good mar and abrasion resistance. They are designed for rapid dry protective coating applications. Ambient cure 2 Part waterborne epoxy coatings provide excellent physical properties in exterior applications. These products have excellent adhesion to various metal substrates. Their low VOC and water clean up makes them a natural choice for factory cast iron, cast steel, cast aluminum applications and reduces exposure and flammability issues associated with solventborne coatings. They are usually used for industrial and automotive uses as they are high heat resistant (as latex-based and alkyd-based paints usually burn, thus peel, with slight high heat temperatures).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Polyester Epoxies are used as powder coatings for washers, driers and other "white goods". Fusion Bonded Epoxy Powder Coatings (FBE) are extensively used for corrosion protection of steel pipes and fittings used in the oil and gas industry, potable water transmission pipelines (steel), concrete reinforcing rebar, et cetera. Epoxy coatings are also widely used as primers to improve the adhesion of automotive and marine paints especially on metal surfaces where corrosion (rusting) resistance is important. Metal cans and containers are often coated with epoxy to prevent rusting, especially for foods like tomatoes that are acidic. Epoxy resins are also used for high performance and decorative flooring applications especially terrazzo flooring, chip flooring  and colored aggregate flooring.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Adhesives&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Special epoxy is strong enough to withstand the extreme force transferred from a surfboard fin to the fin mount. This epoxy is waterproof and capable of curing underwater. The blue-coloured epoxy on the left is still undergoing curing.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Epoxy adhesives are a major part of the class of adhesives called "structural adhesives" or "engineering adhesives" (which also includes polyurethane, acrylic, cyanoacrylate, and other chemistries.) These high-performance adhesives are used in the construction of aircraft, automobiles, bicycles, boats, golf clubs, skis, snow boards, and other applications where high strength bonds are required. Epoxy adhesives can be developed to suit almost any application. They are exceptional adhesives for wood, metal, glass, stone, and some plastics. They can be made flexible or rigid, transparent or opaque/colored, fast setting or extremely slow setting. Epoxy adhesives are almost unmatched in heat and chemical resistance among common adhesives. In general, epoxy adhesives cured with heat will be more heat- and chemical-resistant than those cured at room temperature.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Some epoxies are cured by exposure to ultraviolet light. Such epoxies are commonly used in optics, fiber optics, optoelectronics and dentistry.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Industrial tooling and composites&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Epoxy systems are used in industrial tooling applications to produce molds, master models, laminates, castings, fixtures, and other industrial production aids. This "plastic tooling" replaces metal, wood and other traditional materials, and generally improves the efficiency and either lowers the overall cost or shortens the lead-time for many industrial processes. Epoxies are also used in producing fiber-reinforced or composite parts. They are more expensive than polyester resins and vinyl ester resins, but usually produce stronger and more temperature-resistant composite parts.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Electrical systems and electronics&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;An epoxy encapsulated hybrid circuit on a printed circuit board. Epoxy resin formulations are important in the electronics industry, and are employed in motors, generators, transformers, switchgear, bushings, and insulators. Epoxy resins are excellent electrical insulators and protect electrical components from short circuiting, dust and moisture. In the electronics industry epoxy resins are the primary resin used in overmolding integrated circuits, transistors and hybrid circuits, and making printed circuit boards. The largest volume type of circuit board — an "FR-4 board" — is a sandwich of layers of glass cloth bonded into a composite by an epoxy resin. Epoxy resins are used to bond copper foil to circuit board substrates, and are a component of the solder mask on many circuit boards.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Flexible epoxy resins are used for potting transformers and inductors. By using vacuum impregnation on uncured epoxy, winding-to-winding, winding-to-core, and winding-to-insulator air voids are eliminated. The cured epoxy is an electrical insulator and a much better conductor of heat than air. Transformer and inductor hot spots are greatly reduced, giving the component a stable and longer life than unpotted product.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Epoxy resins are applied using the technology of resin casting.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Consumer and marine applications&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Epoxies are sold in hardware stores, typically as a pack containing separate resin and hardener, which must be mixed immediately before use. They are also sold in boat shops as repair resins for marine applications. Epoxies typically are not used in the outer layer of a boat because they deteriorate by exposure to UV light. They are often used during boat repair and assembly, and then over-coated with conventional or two-part polyurethane paint or marine-varnishes that provide UV protection.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;There are two main areas of marine use. Because of the better mechanical properties relative to the more common polyester resins, epoxies are used for commercial manufacture of components where a high strength/weight ratio is required. The second area is that their strength, gap filling properties and excellent adhesion to many materials including timber have created a boom in amateur building projects including aircraft and boats.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Normal gelcoat formulated for use with polyester resins and polyester resins does not adhere to epoxy surfaces, though epoxy adheres very well if applied to polyester resin surfaces. "Flocoat" that is normally used to coat the interior of polyester fibreglass yachts is also compatible with epoxies.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Polyester thermosets typically use a ratio of at least 10:1 of resin to hardener (or "catalyst"), while epoxy materials typically use a lower ratio of between 5:1 and 1:1. Epoxy materials tend to harden somewhat more gradually, while polyester materials tend to harden quickly.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The classic epoxy reference guide is the Handbook of epoxy resins by Henry Lee and Kris Neville. Originally issued in 1967, it has been reissued repeatedly and still gives an excellent overview of the technology. Some basic tips are given here:www.epoxy.com/install.htm.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Aerospace applications&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In the aerospace industry, epoxy is used as a structural matrix material which is then reinforced by fiber. Typical fiber reinforcements include glass, carbon, Kevlar, and boron. Epoxies are also used as a structural glue. Materials like wood, and others that are 'low-tech' are glued with epoxy resin. One example, a homebuilt aircraft, would be the RJ.03 IBIS. This design is based on a classic wooden lattice structured fuselage and a classic wooden spar, internally stiffened with foam and completely covered with plywood. Except for the plywood covering the wings, everything is glued with epoxy resin.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Wind Energy applications&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Epoxy resin is used in manufacturing rotor blades of wind turbine. The resin is infused in the core material like Balsa, foam &amp;amp; reinforcing media glass fabric. The process is called VARTM i.e. vacuum assisted resin transfer moulding. Due to excellent properties &amp;amp; good finish, epoxy is most favoured resin for composites.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Chemistry&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Structure of unmodified epoxy prepolymer. n denotes the number of polymerized subunits and is in the range from 0 to about 25. When epoxies are mixed with the appropriate catalyst, the resulting reaction is exothermic, and the oxygen on the epoxy monomers is "flipped." This occurs throughout the epoxy, and a matrix with a high stress tolerance is formed, and "glues" the materials together.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Cleanup&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;When using epoxy resin and hardener, vinegar is an effective and safe solvent to clean up tools, brushes, skin, and most surfaces. Acetone can also be used, but it is very volatile and flammable, unlike vinegar. Vinegar is safer for cleaning epoxy resin from human skin than acetone: both liquids will dissolve the resin, but the resin/acetone solution can easily pass through the skin into the bloodstream, unlike vinegar. White vinegar can even clean up epoxy resin that is beginning to cure/harden. DME (Dimethoxyethane) is also a good solvent for epoxy resin and hardener that gives off very little vapor. However, none of these substances is an effective solvent for epoxy that has cured.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Health risks&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The primary risk associated with epoxy use is sensitization to the hardener, which, over time, can induce an allergic reaction. Both epichlorohydrin and bisphenol A are suspected endocrine disruptors.&lt;br /&gt;According to some reports  Bisphenol A is linked to the following effects in humans:&lt;br /&gt;• oestrogenic activity;&lt;br /&gt;• alteration of male reproductive organs;&lt;br /&gt;• early puberty induction;&lt;br /&gt;• shortened duration of breast feeding;&lt;br /&gt;• pancreatic cancer&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;References&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li&gt;Steve Gelsi, "Huntsman OK's $10.6 bln takeover offer from Apollo's Hexion", Market Watch, July 12, 2007. &lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Market Participant, "Hexion IPO Creates Way Too Much Debt", June 22, 2006. &lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Chips Flooring &lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Quartz Flooring &lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Greenpeace 2006 April Report "Our reproductive health and chemical exposure"&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;source : &lt;a href="http://wikipedia.org"&gt;wikipedia.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-7498228492058283665?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/7498228492058283665/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/epoxy-resin.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/7498228492058283665'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/7498228492058283665'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/epoxy-resin.html' title='Epoxy Resin'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-4868214058199248938</id><published>2010-05-03T03:25:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2010-05-03T03:29:28.185-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Food Technology'/><title type='text'>Pembuatan Nata dari Mata Buah Nenas</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;BAB I&lt;br /&gt;PENDAHULUAN&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1. Latar Belakang&lt;br /&gt;Banyak sekali makanan yang dapat dihasilkan dari fermentasi bakteri Acetobacter xylinum salah satu yang banyak digunakan saat ini adalah untuk pembuatan nata. Nata adalah biomassa yang sebagian besar terdiri dari sellulosa, berbentuk agar dan berwarna putih seperti gel. Massa ini berasal dari pertumbuhan bakteri Acetobacter xylinum pada permukaan media cair yang asam dan mengandung gula (http://warintek.progressio.or.id).&lt;br /&gt;Nata yang biasa kita kenal dan temui adalah nata yang terbuat dari air kelapa atau yang sering disebut dengan nata de coco. Ada pula nata de soya yang terbuat dari limbah cair pengolahan tahu (whey tahu) sebagai bahan baku utama pembuatan nata ini. Dalam bahan yang dipakai dalam pembuatan nata sendiri adalah dari kulit buah atau limbah-limbah organik yang bisa disebut sebagai sampah.&lt;br /&gt;Ketika kita mengupas nenas dan mata nenas itu kita buang begitu saja, tanpa memperoleh nilai guna. Dari dasar itulah, kita ingin membuat nata dengan memanfaatkan limbah mata nenas, yang jarang sekali bermanfaat terutama untuk dikonsumsi dan hanya di buang begitu saja.&lt;br /&gt;Selain sangat mudah dalam mendapatkan limbah ini, kandungan gula yang terdapat dalam mata nenas cukup tinggi,&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;BAB II&lt;br /&gt;LANDASAN TEORI&lt;br /&gt;2.1 Pengertian Nata&lt;br /&gt;Kata nata berasal dari bahasa Spanyol yang berarti krim. Nata diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Latin sebagai 'natare' yang berarti terapung-apung. Nata dapat dibuat dari air kelapa, santan kelapa, tetes tebu (molases), limbah cair tebu, atau sari buah (nanas, melon, pisang, jeruk, jambu biji, strawberry dan lain-lain). Nata yang dibuat dari air kelapa disebut nata de coco. Di Indonesia, nata de coco sering disebut sari air kelapa atau sari kelapa. Nata de coco pertama kali berasal dari Filipina. Di Indonesia, nata de coco mulai dicoba pada tahun 1973 dan mulai diperkenalkan pada tahun 1975. Namun demikian, nata de coco mulai dikenal luas di pasaran pada tahun 1981 (Sutarminingsih, 2004).&lt;br /&gt;Nata diambil dari nama tuan Nata yang berhasil menemukan nata de coco. Dari tangan tuan Nata, teknologi pembuatan nata mulai diperkenalkan kepada masyarakat luas di Philiphina. Pada saat ini, Filiphina menjadi negara nomer satu di dunia penghasil nata. Nat de coco dari Filiphina banyak diekspor ke Jepang (Warisno, 2006).&lt;br /&gt;Nata de coco merupakan produk makanan yang dihasilkan dari air kelapa yang mengalami proses fermentasi dengan melibatkan bakteri Acetobacter xylinum, sehingga membentuk kumpulan biomassa yang terdiri dari selulosa dan memiliki bentuk padat, berwarna putih seperti kolang-kaling sehingga sering dikenal sebagai kolang-kaling imitasi.&lt;br /&gt;(diakses dari http://jatim.litbang.deptan.go.id/).&lt;br /&gt;Pemberian nama untuk nata tergantung dari bahan baku yang digunakan. Nata de pinna untuk yang berasal dari nanas, nata de tomato untuk tomat, serta nata de soya yang dibuat dari limbah tahu (diakses dari http://www.kompas.com/).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2.2 Kandungan Gizi Nata&lt;br /&gt;Menurut penelitian dari Balai Mikrobiologi, Puslitbang Biologi LIPI, di dalam 100 gram nata de coco terkandung nutrisi, antara lain : kalori 146 kal; lemak 20 g; karbohidrat 36,1 mg; Ca 12 mg; Fosfor 2 mg; dan Fe 0,5 mg. Nata juga mengandung air yang cukup banyak (sekitar 80%), namun tetap dapat disimpan lama (diakses dari http://jatim.litbang.deptan.go.id).&lt;br /&gt;Kandungan gizi nata yang dihidangkan dengan sirup adalah sebagai berikut: 67,7 persen air, 0,2 persen lemak, 12 mg kalsium, 5 mg zat besi, 2 mg fosfor, vitamin B1, protein, serta hanya 0,01 mikrogram riboflavin per 100 gramnya.&lt;br /&gt;Beberapa tindakan fortifikasi dengan vitamin (niasin, riboflavin, vitamin B1, dan vitamin C) dan mineral (kalsium dan fosfor), telah dilakukan untuk meningkatkan nilai gizinya. Bahan-bahan tambahan ini stabil pada suhu kamar selama 11 bulan atau lebih.&lt;br /&gt;Karena kandungan gizi (khususnya energi) yang sangat rendah, produk ini aman untuk dimakan oleh siapa saja. Produk ini tidak akan menyebabkan gemuk, sehingga sangat dianjurkan bagi mereka yang sedang diet rendah kalori untuk menurunkan berat badan. Keunggulan lain dari nata de coco adalah kandungan serat (dietary fiber)-nya yang cukup tinggi, terutama selulosa.&lt;br /&gt;Tanpa adanya serat dalam makanan, kita akan mudah mengalami gejala sembelit atau konstipasi (susah buang air besar), wasir, penyakit divertikulosis, kanker usus besar, radang apendiks, kencing manis, jantung koroner, dan kegemukan (obesitas). Dengan adanya serat dari nata de coco atau bahan pangan lainnya, proses buang air besar menjadi teratur dan berbagai penyakit tersebut dapat dihindari.&lt;br /&gt;Walaupun nata de coco rendah kandungan gizinya, cara mengonsumsi yang salah dapat menyebabkan kita menjadi gemuk. Proses menjadi gemuk tersebut tidak disebabkan oleh nata de coco itu sendiri. Penyebabnya adalah sirup yang terlalu manis atau bahan pencampur lainnya. Oleh karena itu, hindari mengonsumsi nata de coco dengan campuran sirup yang terlalu manis atau bahan-bahan lain yang kaya kalori (diakses dari http://www.kompas.com/).&lt;br /&gt;2.3 Tinjauan tentang Nenas&lt;br /&gt;Nanas, nenas, atau ananas (Ananas comosus  (L.) Merr.) adalah sejenis tumbuhan  tropis yang berasal dari Brazil, Bolivia, dan Paraguay. Tumbuhan ini termasuk dalam familia nanas-nanasan (Famili Bromeliaceae). Perawakan (habitus) tumbuhannya rendah, herba (menahun) dengan 30 atau lebih daun yang panjang, berujung tajam, tersusun dalam bentuk roset mengelilingi batang yang tebal. Buahnya dalam bahasa Inggris disebut sebagai pineapple karena bentuknya yang seperti pohon pinus. Nama 'nanas' berasal dari sebutan orang Tupi untuk buah ini: anana, yang bermakna "buah yang sangat baik". Burung penghisap madu (hummingbird) merupakan penyerbuk alamiah dari buah ini, meskipun berbagai serangga juga memiliki peran yang sama.&lt;br /&gt;Buah nanas sebagaimana yang dijual orang bukanlah buah sejati, melainkan gabungan buah-buah sejati (bekasnya terlihat dari setiap 'sisik' pada kulit buahnya) yang dalam perkembangannya tergabung -- bersama-sama dengan tongkol (spadix) bunga majemuk -- menjadi satu 'buah' besar. Nanas yang dibudidayakan orang sudah kehilangan kemampuan memperbanyak secara seksual, namun ia mengembangkan tanaman muda (bagian 'mahkota' buah) yang merupakan sarana perbanyakan secara vegetatif. Di Indonesia, propinsi Lampung merupakan daerah penanaman nanas utama, dengan beberapa pabrik pengolahan nanas juga terdapat di sana.&lt;br /&gt;Nenas adalah buah tropis dengan daging buah berwarna kuning memiliki kandungan air 90% dan kaya akan Kalium, Kalsium, lodium, Sulfur, dan Khlor. Selain itu juga kaya Asam, Biotin, Vitamin B12, Vitamin E serta Enzim Bromelin. Salah satu wilayah di Indonesia yang memiliki hasil agroindustri nanas yang cukup populer adalah Sumatera Selatan. Nanas merupakan komoditas unggulan di Sumatera Selatan. Nanas dihasilkan dari sekitar Palembang, yang paling terkenal adalah nanas Prabumulih yang terkenal dengan rasa manisnya, konon nanas termanis di Indonesia berasal dari daerah ini. Pada tahun 2006 produksi panen nanas di Sumatera Selatan mencapai 141.542 ton/tahun, peringkat ke tiga setelah Jawa Barat dan Lampung. Permintaan pasar dalam negeri terhadap buah nanas cenderung meningkat sejalan dengan pertumbuhan jumlah penduduk, semakin baik pendapatan masyarakat, dan semakin tinggi kesadaran penduduk tentang nilai gizi dari buah-buahan.&lt;br /&gt;Nanas termasuk komoditas buah yang mudah rusak, susut, dan cepat busuk. Oleh karena itu, seusai panen memerlukan penanganan pasca panen, salah satunya dengan pengolahan. Gagasan ini terbukti menguntungkan, sebab dengan menjadi produk olahan akan diperoleh banyak keuntungan. Selain menyelamatkan hasil panen, pengolahan buah nanas juga dapat memperpanjang umur simpan, diversifikasi pangan dan meningkatkan kualitas maupun nilai ekonomis buah tersebut. Produk olahan nanas dapat berupa makanan dan minuman, seperti selai, cocktail, sirup, sari buah, keripik hingga manisan buah kering. Sari buah nanas adalah cairan yang diperoleh dari proses ekstraksi buah nanas. Sari buah tersebut terbagi dua, ada yang dapat diminum langsung dan ada yang difermentasi menjadi minuman kesehatan.&lt;br /&gt;Buah nanas mengandung vitamin (A dan C), Kalsium, Fosfor, Magnesium, Besi, Natrium, Kalium, Dekstrosa, Sukrosa (gula tebu), dan Enzim Bromelain. Bromelain berkhasiat antiradang, membantu melunakkan makanan di lambung, mengganggu pertumbuhan sel kanker, menghambat agregasi platelet, dan mempunyai aktivitas fibrinolitik. Kandungan seratnya dapat mempermudah buang air besar pada penderita sembelit (konstipasi). Daun mengandung kalsium oksalat dan pectic substances.&lt;br /&gt;2.4 Tinjauan tentang Mata Nenas&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Nanas termasuk buah yang banyak digunakan pada beberapa industri olahan pangan seperti jam, sirup, sari buah, nektar serta buah dalam botol atau kaleng. Berbagai macam pengolahan tersebut, akan membutuhkan buah nanas dalam jumlah yang cukup besar dan selanjutnya tentu akan menghasilkan limbah dalam jumlah besar juga. Limbah buah nenas tersebut terdiri dari : limbah kulit, limbah mata, dan limbah hati. Kalau diamati bagian limbah yang terbuang ini masih memiliki bagian yang mirip dengan bagian daging buah, hanya saja bercampur dengan bagian yang tidak diinginkan. Limbah atau hasil ikutan (side product) nenas relatif hanya dibuang begitu saja. Sebenarnya peluang untuk dimanfaatkan lebih lanjut sangat mungkin.&lt;br /&gt;Salah satu alternatif pemanfaatan limbah nenas yang dapat dilakukan adalah dengan pemanfaatannya menjadi produk nata de pina. Nata merupakan produk fermentasi dengan bantuan bakteri Acetobacter xylinum. Dilihat dari namanya bakteri ini termasuk kelompok bakteri asam asetat (aceto : asetat, bacter : bakteri). Jika ditumbuhkan di media cair yang mengandung gula, bakteri ini akan menghasilkan asam cuka atau asam asetat dan padatan putih yang terapung di permukaan media cair tersebut. Lapisan putih itulah yang dikenal sebagai nata. Pada dasarnya produksi nata dengan media sari buah nenas telah banyak dilakukan yakni dikenal sebagai nata de pina, tetapi dengan mencoba produksi nata dengan menumbuhkan bakteri A. xylinum pada media limbah buah nenas belum dilakukan.&lt;br /&gt;Pada umumnya buah nenas memiliki bagian-bagian yang bersifat buangan, bagian-bagian tersebut yaitu tunas daun, kulit luar, mata dan hati. Untuk tunas daun tidak mungkin dimanfaatkan sebagai media nata. Pada bagian kulit yang merupakan bagian terluar, memiliki tekstur yang tidak rata, dan banyak terdapat duri-duri kecil pada permukaan luarnya. Biasanya pada bagian ini merupakan bagian yang pertama dibuang oleh masyarakat karena bagian ini tergolong bagian yang tidak dapat dikonsumsi langsung sebagai buah segar. Bagian mata merupakan bagian ke dua setelah kulit yang dibuang oleh masyarakat. Mata memiliki bentuk yang agak rata dan banyak terdapat lubang-lubang kecil menyerupai mata. Bagian terakhir yang juga merupakan bagian buangan adalah hati. Hati merupakan bagian tengah dari buah nenas, memiliki bentuk memanjang sepanjang buah nenas, memiliki tekstur yang agak keras dan rasanya agak manis. Hati nenas dapat juga dimanfaatkan dengan mengambil tepungnya. Kadar tepung hati nenas yang sudah tua berkisar antara 10% - 15% dari berat segar.&lt;br /&gt;Nanas termasuk buah yang banyak digunakan pada beberapa industri olahan pangan seperti jam, sirup, sari buah, nektar serta buah dalam botol atau kaleng. Berbagai macam pengolahan tersebut, akan membutuhkan buah nanas dalam jumlah yang cukup besar dan selanjutnya tentu akan menghasilkan limbah dalam jumlah besar juga. Limbah buah nenas tersebut terdiri dari : limbah kulit, limbah mata, dan limbah hati. Kalau diamati bagian limbah yang terbuang ini masih memiliki bagian yang mirip dengan bagian daging buah, hanya saja bercampur dengan bagian yang tidak diinginkan. Limbah atau hasil ikutan (side product) nenas relatif hanya dibuang begitu saja. Sebenarnya peluang untuk dimanfaatkan lebih lanjut sangat mungkin.&lt;br /&gt;Salah satu alternatif pemanfaatan limbah nenas yang dapat dilakukan adalah dengan pemanfaatannya menjadi produk nata de pina. Nata merupakan produk fermentasi dengan bantuan bakteri Acetobacter xylinum. Dilihat dari namanya bakteri ini termasuk kelompok bakteri asam asetat (aceto : asetat, bacter : bakteri). Jika ditumbuhkan di media cair yang mengandung gula, bakteri ini akan menghasilkan asam cuka atau asam asetat dan padatan putih yang terapung di permukaan media cair tersebut. Lapisan putih itulah yang dikenal sebagai nata. Pada dasarnya produksi nata dengan media sari buah nenas telah banyak dilakukan yakni dikenal sebagai nata de pina, tetapi dengan mencoba produksi nata dengan menumbuhkan bakteri A. xylinum pada media limbah buah nenas belum dilakukan.&lt;br /&gt;Pada umumnya buah nenas memiliki bagian-bagian yang bersifat buangan, bagian-bagian tersebut yaitu tunas daun, kulit luar, mata dan hati. Untuk tunas daun tidak mungkin dimanfaatkan sebagai media nata. Pada bagian kulit yang merupakan bagian terluar, memiliki tekstur yang tidak rata, dan banyak terdapat duri-duri kecil pada permukaan luarnya. Biasanya pada bagian ini merupakan bagian yang pertama dibuang oleh masyarakat karena bagian ini tergolong bagian yang tidak dapat dikonsumsi langsung sebagai buah segar. Bagian mata merupakan bagian ke dua setelah kulit yang dibuang oleh masyarakat. Mata memiliki bentuk yang agak rata dan banyak terdapat lubang-lubang kecil menyerupai mata. Bagian terakhir yang juga merupakan bagian buangan adalah hati. Hati merupakan bagian tengah dari buah nenas, memiliki bentuk memanjang sepanjang buah nenas, memiliki tekstur yang agak keras dan rasanya agak manis. Hati nenas dapat juga dimanfaatkan dengan mengambil tepungnya. Kadar tepung hati nenas yang sudah tua berkisar antara 10% - 15% dari berat segar.&lt;br /&gt;2.5 Bakteri Pembentuk Nata&lt;br /&gt;Nata de coco merupakan hasil fermentasi air kelapa dengan bantuan mikroba Acetobacter xylinum. Gula pada air kelapa diubah menjadi asam asetat dan benang-benang selulosa. Massa ini berasal dari pertumbuhan Acetobacter xylinum pada permukaan media cair yang asam dan mengandung gula. Lama-kelamaan akan terbentuk suatu massa yang kokoh dan mencapai ketebalan beberapa sentimeter. Dengan demikian, nata de coco dapat juga dianggap sebagai selulosa bakteri yang berbentuk padat, berwarna putih, transparan, berasa manis, bertekstur kenyal, dan umumnya dikonsumsi sebagai makanan ringan&lt;br /&gt;(diakses dari http://shantybio.transdigit.com/).&lt;br /&gt;Acetobacter xylinum adalah genus schizomycetes dari famili pseudomonadaceae, ordo pseudomonadales, sebagai sel berbentuk elips sampai berbentuk batang, sendiri-sendiri atau berpasangan, berantai pendek atau panjang, penting karena perannya pada penyelesaian siklus karbon dan pembuatan cuka. (kamus kedokteran Dorland, 1996)&lt;br /&gt;Dalam bakteri tersebut tumbuh dan berkembang dengan derajat keasaman atau pH 3-4. Mikroba yang aktif dalam pembuatan nata adalah bakteri pembentuk asam asetat yaitu Acetobacter xylinum. Mikroba ini dapat merubah gula menjadi selulosa. Jalinan selulosa inilah yang membuat nata terlihat putih. Tahap-tahap yang perlu dilakukan dalam pembuatan nata adalah persiapan media, starter, inokulasi, fermentasi atau pengeraman, pemanenan, penghilangan asam dan pengawetan. Komposisi media yang digunakan untuk pengawetan. Komposisi media yang digunakan untuk starter adalah sama dengan media untuk pemeliharaan kultur tetapi tanpa media agar (Warisno, 2005)&lt;br /&gt;Pertumbuhan bakteri Acetobacter Xylinum dipengaruhi oleh berbagai factor, misalnya tingkat keasaman medium, suhu fermentasi, lama fermentasi, sumber nitrogen, sumber karbon, konsentrasi starter (bibit). Aktivitas pembentukan nata hanya terjadi pada kisaran pH 3,5-7,5. Asam asetat glacial yang ditambahkan ke dalam medium dapat berfungsi menurunkan pH medium hingga tercapai pH optimal, yaitu sekitar 4. Sementara, suhu yang memungkinkan nata dapat terbentuk dengan baik adalah suhu kamar, yang berkisar antara 280C-320C.&lt;br /&gt;Bibit merupakan salah satu factor yang menentukan jeberhasilan dalam pembuatan nata. Penggunaan bibit terutama dimaksudkan untuk mengurangi pencemaran yang dapat disebabkan oleh adanya bakteri pembusuk serta untuk mempercepat pembentukan nata. (Sutarminingsih, 2006).&lt;br /&gt;2.6 Mekanisme Pembentukan Nata&lt;br /&gt;Nata de fina merupakan hasil fermentasi mata nenas dengan bantuan mikroba Acetobacter xylinum. Gula pada mata nenas diubah menjadi asam asetat dan benang-benang selulosa. Lama-kelamaan akan terbentuk suatu massa yang kokoh dan mencapai ketebalan beberapa sentimeter. Dengan demikian, nata de fina dapat juga dianggap sebagai selulosa bakteri yang berbentuk padat, berwarna putih, transparan, berasa manis, bertekstur kenyal, dan umumnya dikonsumsi sebagai makanan ringan.&lt;br /&gt;Starter atau biakan mikroba merupakan suatu bahan yang paling penting dalam pembentukan nata. Sebagai starter, digunakan biakan murni dari Acetobacter xylinum. Bakteri ini secara alami dapat ditemukan pada sari tanaman bergula yang telah mengalami fermentasi atau pada sayuran dan buah-buahan bergula yang sudah membusuk.&lt;br /&gt;Bila mikroba ini ditumbuhkan pada media yang mengandung gula, organisme ini dapat mengubah 19 persen gula menjadi selulosa. Selulosa yang dikeluarkan ke dalam media itu berupa benang-benang yang bersama-sama dengan polisakarida berlendir membentuk jalinan yang terus menebal menjadi lapisan nata.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2.7 Penentuan Kadar Sukrosa Dengan Metode “ LUFF SCHOORL ”&lt;br /&gt;Volume Na2S2O3 0,1 N yang diperlukan untuk :kan table, untuk volume&lt;br /&gt;Titrasi Blanko = 10,2 mL&lt;br /&gt;Titrasi Sampel =4,1 mL&lt;br /&gt;Selisih volume ( AV ) =10,2 - 4,1 = 6,1 mL&lt;br /&gt;Berdasarkan table pada lampiran , untuk volume 6 Ml Na2S2O3, maka kadar sukrosa sebesar 14,7 mg.&lt;br /&gt;Volume sampel = 5 ml&lt;br /&gt;Sehingga kadar sukrosa = 14,7 mg / 5 mL&lt;br /&gt;      = 2,94 mg/ml&lt;br /&gt;Kadar Sukrosa dalam 100 ml sampel 2940 mg / 100 ml atau 0,2940 g / 100ml = 0,294 % b/v&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;BAB III&lt;br /&gt;METODE PENELITIAN&lt;br /&gt;3.1 Waktu dan Tempat&lt;br /&gt;Percobaan ini akan dilaksanakan di laboratorium Teknik kimia pada tanggal 24 Maret sampai jam 11:00 W.I.B&lt;br /&gt;3.2 Alat dan Bahan&lt;br /&gt;3.4.1 Bahan&lt;br /&gt;1. Mata nenas&lt;br /&gt;2. Biakan Murni Acetobacter Xylinum&lt;br /&gt;3. Gula Pasir&lt;br /&gt;4. Pupuk ZA&lt;br /&gt;5. Asam Cuka&lt;br /&gt;6. Garam Inggris&lt;br /&gt;7. Air&lt;br /&gt;8. Sirup&lt;br /&gt;3.4.2 Peralatan&lt;br /&gt;1. Kompor&lt;br /&gt;2. Panci&lt;br /&gt;3. Pengaduk&lt;br /&gt;4. Botol&lt;br /&gt;5. Corong Plastik&lt;br /&gt;6. Baki atau Loyang Plastik&lt;br /&gt;7. Gayung plastik&lt;br /&gt;8. Gelas Ukur&lt;br /&gt;9. Kertas Koran Bekas&lt;br /&gt;10. Karet Gelang&lt;br /&gt;3.3. Cara Kerja&lt;br /&gt;1. Persiapan Media Stater&lt;br /&gt;Starter atau biakan mikroba merupakan suatu bahan yang paling penting dalam pembentukan nata. Sebagai starter, digunakan biakan murni dari Acetobacter xylinum. Bakteri ini dapat dihasilkan dari ampas nenas yang telah diinkubasi (diperam) selama 2-3 minggu. Starter yang digunakan dalam pembuatan nata sebanyak 170 ml&lt;br /&gt;2. Pencucian&lt;br /&gt;Untuk menghilangkan kotoran yang bercampur pada mata nenas dilakukan pencucian mata nenas dan dipisahkan antara kulit dan mata nenas nya.&lt;br /&gt;3. Penghalusan&lt;br /&gt;Mata nenas ditambahkan air 1: 2 lalu diblender hingga halus dan kemudian disaring dengan kain saring hingga diperoleh filtrate ( Cairan hasil penyaringan ).&lt;br /&gt;4. Pendidihan&lt;br /&gt;Masukan kedalam panci lalu panaskan  diatas kompor. Setelah mendidih, tambahkan gula pasir 10%b/v, asam cuka 0,8%b/v ( bila yang digunakan asam cuka dipasaran 4-5% v/v), pupuk ZA 0,125%b/v ( 1 pucuk sendok the ), dan Garam inggris 0,01%b/v. Aduk sampai larut lalu angkat.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3. Inokulasi ( Pencampuran Dengan Strater )&lt;br /&gt;Filtrat mata nenas yang dingin, Kemudian diinokulasi dengan menambahkan starter (Acetobacter xylinum) ± 10-20 % filtrat.&lt;br /&gt;4. Fermentasi&lt;br /&gt;Masukkan campuran tersebut ke dalam wadah fermentasi (baskom berukuran 34 x 25 x 5 cm). Wadah ditutup dengan kain saring dan diletakkan ditempat yang bersih dan aman. Dilakukan pemeraman selama 8-14 hari hingga lapisan mencapai ketebalan yang maksimum.&lt;br /&gt;5. Pemanenan&lt;br /&gt;Setelah pemeraman selesai 10 hari dengan terbentuk lapisan nata siap dipanen, lapisan nata diangkat secara hati-hati dengan menggunakan garpu atau penjepit yang bersih supaya cairan dibawah lapisan tidak tercemar. Kemudian cuci lalu peras dengan kain saring ( agar tidak licin ), Iris dengan ukuran sesuai selera, lalu masak dengan air sampai mendidih. Tiriskan dan peras lagi dengan kain saring, lalu dimask lagi. Pemasakan dilakukan sampai bau asam cuka hilang. Nata siap dihidangkan dengan larutan syrup.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;BAB III&lt;br /&gt;HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN&lt;br /&gt;3.1 Hasil&lt;br /&gt;Hasil dari nata yang diperoleh mempunyai warna agak kekuningan dibanding nata yang terbuat dari air kelapa murni. Nata yang terbuat dari mata nenas ini memiliki kekenyalan yang hampir sama dengan nata yang dibuat dari bahan baku air kelapa.&lt;br /&gt;3.2 Pembahasan&lt;br /&gt;Nenas mengandung kadar asam yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan air kelapa. Pada percobaan kmren, kita terlalu banyak menambahkan asam cuka nya, sehingga pada saat pemanenan, hanya terbentuk nata dibeberapa  lapisan atas saja sedangkan yang bagian bawahnya tidak terbentuk nata. Ini dikarenakan terlalu banyak penambahkan asam pada saat pencampuran filtrate di proses atas. Tetapi nata yang dihasilkan cukup kenyal juga bila dibandingkan dengan nata air kelapa.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;BAB V&lt;br /&gt;KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN&lt;br /&gt;5.1 Kesimpulan&lt;br /&gt;Dari hasil yang didapat, ternyata mata nenas dapat dimanfaatkan sebagai nata karena dapat terbentuk jaringan-jaringan selulosa sehingga nata yang dihasilkan dapat padat, putih dan kenyal.&lt;br /&gt;5.2 Saran&lt;br /&gt;1. Dalam pembuatan nata, maka kebersihan alat dan bahan serta kemurnian media perlu diperhatikan untuk hasil yang lebih optimal&lt;br /&gt;2. Bahan-bahan dasar nata juga perlu diperhatikan kemurnian dan kebersihannya untuk memperoleh hasil yang optimal.&lt;br /&gt;3. Penambahan asam cuka harus benar – benar diperhitungkan..&lt;br /&gt;4. Pendinginan adonan nata sebaiknya dengan ditutupi kertas Koran bekas yang telah disetrika.&lt;br /&gt;5. Pembaca bisa melakukan percobaan yang sama dengan perbandingan yang diubah-ubah&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-4868214058199248938?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/4868214058199248938/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/pembuatan-nata-dari-mata-buah-nenas.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/4868214058199248938'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/4868214058199248938'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/pembuatan-nata-dari-mata-buah-nenas.html' title='Pembuatan Nata dari Mata Buah Nenas'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-2422586026708932048</id><published>2010-05-03T03:22:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2010-05-03T03:25:25.056-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Food Technology'/><title type='text'>PEMBUATAN NATA DE COCO DARI AIR KELAPA TUA DAN PENGUJIAN KADAR GLUKOSA</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;BAB I&lt;br /&gt;PENDAHULUAN&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A. Tinjauan Pustaka&lt;br /&gt; Pemberdayaan masyarakat dalam sektor ekonomi melalui pemanfaatan limbah bahan makanan menjadi produk yang lebih berguna dan memiliki nilai jual lebih tinggi patut digalakkan. Di antaranya adalah pembuatan nata dari bahan-bahan limbah makanan. Limbah yang dapat digunakan sebagai bahan pembuatan nata haruslah yang mengandung glukosa cukup bagi pertumbuhan bakteri yang kelak akan mengubahnya menjadi serat yang layak dikonsumsi. Pada praktikum kali ini digunakan air kelapa tua sebagai bahan baku dan hasilnya di pasaran dikenal sebagai nata de coco.&lt;br /&gt; Nata de coco adalah makanan yang banyak mengandung serat selulosa kadar tinggi yang bermanfaat bagi kelancaran pencernaan kita. Makanan ini berbentuk padat, kokoh, kuat, putih, transparan, dan kenyal dengan rasa mirip kolang-kaling. Produk ini banyak digunakan sebagai pencampur es krim, coktail buah, sirup, dan makanan ringan lainnya. Kandungan kalorinya yang rendah, sangat tepat dikonsumsi sebagai makanan diet. Penambahan vitamin dan mineral akan mempertinggi nilai gizi nata de coco.&lt;br /&gt;Nata de coco merupakan jenis makanan hasil fermentasi oleh bakteri Acetobacter xylinum. Acetobacter xylinum dalam pertumbuhan dan aktivitasnya membentuk nata memerlukan suatu media yang tepat memiliki kandungan komponen-komponen yang dibutuhkan sehingga produksi nata yang dihasilkan dapat secara optimal.&lt;br /&gt;Komponen media nata yang dibutuhkan sebagai syarat media nata antara lain memiliki sumber karbon dapat berupa gula, sumber nitrogen dapat berupa penambahan urea atau ZA, mineral dan vitamin yang mendukung pertumbuhan bakteri acetobacter xylinum. Pada fermentasi nata kondisi lingkungan juga sangat berpengaruh karena bakteri acetobacter xylinum memiliki kondisi optimum lingkungannya untuk tumbuh baik itu suhu, pH, cahaya, oksigen dan lain-lainnya.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1. Air Kelapa&lt;br /&gt;Air kelapa merupakan salah satu bagian dari buah kelapa yang mengandung sedi-kit karbohidrat, protein, lemak dan beberapa mineral. Bergantung kepada umur buah, se-tiap butir kelapa mengandung air sekitar 230-300 ml. Adapun air kelapa tua memiliki kandungan nutrisi yang baik bagi pertumbuhan Acetobacter xylium. Kandungan tersebut  (per 100 gram) antara lain :&lt;br /&gt;Protein (g)   0,14&lt;br /&gt;Lemak (g)   1,50&lt;br /&gt;Karbohidrat (g)   4,60&lt;br /&gt;Kalsium (mg)   15,00&lt;br /&gt;Phosfor (mg)   0,50&lt;br /&gt;Besi (mg)    0,20&lt;br /&gt;Vitamin C (mg)   1,00&lt;br /&gt;Air (g)    91,50&lt;br /&gt;Air kelapa yang digunakan dalam pembuatan nata harus berasal dari kelapa yang masak optimal, tidak terlalu tua atau terlalu muda. Bahan tambahan yang diperlu-kan oleh bakteri antara lain karbohidrat sederhana, sumber nitrogen, dan asam asetat. Pada ummumnya senyawa karbohidrat sederhana dapat digunakan sebagai suplemen pembuatan nata de coco, Di antaranya adalah senyawa-senyawa maltosa, sukrosa, lakto-sa, fruktosa dan manosa. Dalam hal ini sukrosa merupakan senyawa yang paling ekonomis digunakan dan paling baik bagi pertumbuhan dan perkembangan bibit nata.&lt;br /&gt;2. Nata de Coco&lt;br /&gt;Nata de coco merupakan hasil fermentasi air kelapa dengan bantuan mikroba Acetobacter xylinum, yang berbentuk padat, berwarna putih, transparan, berasa manis dan bertekstur kenyal. Selain banyak diminati karena rasanya yang enak dan kaya serat, pembuatan nata de coco pun tidak sulit dan biaya yang dibutuhkan tidak banyak sehing-ga dapat sebagai alternatif usaha yang dapat memberikan keuntungan.&lt;br /&gt;Adapun dari segi warna yang paling baik digunakan adalah sukrosa putih. Sum-ber nitrogen yang dapat digunakan untuk mendukung pertumbuhan aktivitas bakteri nata dapat berasal dari nitrogen organik, seperti misalnya protein dan ekstrak yeast, maupun nitrogen anorganik seperti misalnya ammonium fosfat, urea, dan ammonium sulfat. Na-mun, sumber nitrogen anorganik sangat murah dan fungsinya tidak kalah jika diban-dingkan dengan sumber nitrogen organik. Bahkan di antara sumber nitrogen anorganik ada yang mempunyai sifat lebih yaitu ammonium sulfat. Kelebihan yang dimaksud ada-lah murah, mudah larut, dan selektif bagi mikroorganisme lain.&lt;br /&gt;Asam asetat atau asam cuka digunakan untuk menurunkan pH atau meningkat-kan keasaman air kelapa. Asam asetat yang baik adalah asam asetat glacial (99,8%). Se-lain asam asetat, asam-asam organik dan anorganik lain bisa digunakan.&lt;br /&gt;Nata yang dihasilkan tentunya bisa beragam kualitasnya. Kualitas yang baik a-kan terpenuhi apabila air kelapa yang digunakan memenuhi standar kualitas bahan nata, dan prosesnya dikendalikan dengan cara yang benar berdasarkan pada faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi pertumbuhan dan aktivitas Acetobacter xylinum yang digunakan. Apabila rasio antara karbon dan nitrogen diatur secara optimal, dan prosesnya terkontrol dengan baik, maka semua cairan akan berubah menjadi nata tanpa meninggalkan residu.&lt;br /&gt;Proses pembuatan nata de coco sangat dipengaruhi oleh berbagai faktor. Hal ini berhubungan dengan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi acetibacter xylium sebagai bak-teri untuk proses fermentasi air kelapa. Pertumbunan acetobacter xylium tersebut dipe-ngaruhi oleh oksigen, pH, suhu, dan nutrisi. Faktor-faktor inilah yang harus diperhatikan untuk memperoleh nata de coco yang berkualitas baik. Di samping itu, selama  pembuat-an sangat diperlukan ketelitian dan sterilitas alat bahkan harus dihindari kontak dengan udara langsung. Perlakuan demikian guna mencegah kontaminasi bakteri lain yang ber-sifat pathogen.&lt;br /&gt;Menurut penelitian dari Balai Mikrobiologi, Puslitbang Biologi LIPI, di dalam 100 gram nata de coco terkandung nutrisi, antara lain : kalori 146 kal; lemak 20 g; karbohidrat 36,1 mg; Ca 12 mg; Fosfor 2 mg; dan Fe 0,5 mg.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3. Mikroorganisme Penghasil Selulosa&lt;br /&gt;Mikroorganisme yang telah lama dikenal sebagai penghasil selulosa adalah dari golongan bakteri terutama Acetobacter. Menurut Breed et al (1957), spesies Acetobacter yang telah dikenal antara lain Acetobacter aceti, Acetobacter orleansis, Acetobacter liquefaciens dan Acetobacter xylinum. Acetobacter xylinum merupakan bakteri berben-tuk batang pendek, yang mempunyai panjang 2 mikron dan lebar , micron, dengan per-mukaan dinding yang berlendir. Bakteri ini membentuk rantai pendek dengan satuan 6-8 sel. Bersifat ninmotil dan dengan pewarnaan Gram menunjukkan Gram negative.&lt;br /&gt;Bakteri ini tidak membentuk endospora maupun pigmen. Pada kultur sel yang masih muda, individu sel berada sendiri-sendiri dan transparan. Koloni yang sudah tua membentuk lapisan menyerupai gelatin yang kokoh menutupi sel koloninya. Pertumbu-han koloni pada medium cair setelah 48 jam inokulasi akan membentuk lapisan pelikel dan dapat dengan mudah diambil dengan jarum oase.&lt;br /&gt;Bakteri ini dapat membentuk asam dari glukosa, etil alkohol, dan propel alko-hol, tidak membentuk indol dan mempunyai kemampuan mengoksidasi asam asetat men-jadi CO2 dan H2O. Sifat yang paling menonjol dari bakteri itu adalah memiliki kemam-puan untuk mempolimerisasi glukosa sehingga menjadi selulosa, selanjutnya selulosa tersebut membentuk matrik yang dikenal sebagai nata. Factor lain yang dominan mem-pengaruhi sifat fisiologi dalam pembentukan nata adalah ketersediaan nutrisi, derajat ke-asaman, temperatur, dan ketersediaan oksigen.&lt;br /&gt;Bakteri Acetobacter Xylinum mengalami pertumbuhan sel. Pertumbuhan sel ini didefinisikan sebagai pertumbuhan secara teratur semua komponen di dalam sel hidup. Bakteri Acetobacter Xylinum mengalami beberapa fase pertumbuhan sel yaitu fase adap-tasi, fase pertumbuhan awal, fase pertumbuhan eksponensial, fase pertumbuhan lambat, fase pertumbuhan tetap, fase menuju kematian, dan fase kematian.&lt;br /&gt;Apabila bakteri dipindah ke media baru maka bakteri tidak langsung tumbuh melainkan beradaptasi terlebih dahulu. Pada fase terjadi aktivitas metabolisme dan pem-besaran sel, meskipun belum mengalami pertumbuhan. Fase pertumbuhan adaptasi dica-pai pada 0-24 jam sejak inokulasi. Fase pertumbuhan awal dimulai dengan pembelahan sel dengan kecepatan rendah. Fase ini berlangsung beberapa jam saja dan fase eksponen-sial dicapai antara 1-5 hari. Pada fase ini bakteri mengeluarkan enzim ektraselulerpoli-merase sebanyak-banyaknya untuk menyusun polimer glukosa menjadi selulosa (matrik nata). Fase ini sangat menentukan kecepatan suatu strain Acetobacter Xylinum dalam membentuk nata.&lt;br /&gt;Fase pertumbuhan lambat terjadi karena nutrisi telah berkurang, terdapat meta-bolic yang bersifat racun yang menghambat pertumbuhan bakteri dan umur sel sudah tua. Pada fase in pertumbuhan tidak stabil, tetapi jumlah sel yang tumbuh masih lebih banyak disbanding jumlah sel mati.Fase pertumbuhan tetap terjadi keseimbangan antara sel yang tumbuh dan yang mati. Matrik nata lebih banyak diproduksi pada fase ini. Fase menuju kematian terjadi akibat nutrisi dalam media sudah hampir habis. Setelah nutrisi habis, maka bakteri akan mengalami fase kematian. Pada fase kematian sel dengan cepat mengalami kematian. Bakteri hasil dari fase ini tidak baik untuk strain nata.&lt;br /&gt;Adanya sukrosa pada air kelapa dimanfaatkan oleh bakteri ini sebagai sumber energy ataupun sumber karbon untuk membentuk senyawa metabolit berupa selulosa. Dimulai dari bagian permukaan media cair tersebut bakteri akan tumbuh membentuk lapisan selulosa berwarna putih yang makin lama makin tebal dan disebut nata. Senyawa pendukung pertumbuhan dan mineral pada air kelapa akan membantu pertumbuhan bakteri dan aktifitas enzim kinase dalam sel Azetobacter xilinum untuk menghasilkan nata de coco.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;BAB II&lt;br /&gt;PROSEDUR PRAKTIKUM&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2.1. Alat dan Bahan&lt;br /&gt;Alat :&lt;br /&gt;- Saringan tepung, untuk menyaring air kelapa sebagai bahan baku.&lt;br /&gt;- Panci alumunium, sebagai wadah mendidihkan dan mencampur.&lt;br /&gt;- Gelas ukur, untuk mengukur volume bahan baku.&lt;br /&gt;- Pengaduk, untuk mengaduk.&lt;br /&gt;- Neraca/timbangan, untuk menimbang gula pasir.&lt;br /&gt;- Kompor, sebagai pemanas.&lt;br /&gt;- Nampan fermentasi, sebagai wadah penyimpanan selama fermentasi berlangsung.&lt;br /&gt;- Botol syrup gelas, sebagai wadah penyimpan starter.&lt;br /&gt;- Kertas Koran, untuk penutup larutan agar tercegah kontak langsung dengan udara luar.&lt;br /&gt;- Karet gelang, Untuk pengikat kertas penutup.&lt;br /&gt;Bahan :&lt;br /&gt;- Air kelapa tua, 1000 ml&lt;br /&gt;- Gula pasir, 10 % dari air kelapa = 100 g&lt;br /&gt;- Asam cuka, 5 % dari air kelapa = 50 ml.&lt;br /&gt;- Pupuk ZA, 0,1 % dari air kelapa = 1 g&lt;br /&gt;- Garam Inggris, sepucuk sendok teh.&lt;br /&gt;2.2. Langkah Kerja&lt;br /&gt;2.2.1. Penentuan Kadar Karbohidrat&lt;br /&gt;Analisis kwalitatif  karbohidrat air kelapa tua&lt;br /&gt;- Uji Molish&lt;br /&gt;Ke dalam tabung reaksi berisi 2 ml larutan sampel ditambahkan 5 tetes reagen Molish . Kemudian ditambahkan H2SO4 pekat melalui dinding tabung.&lt;br /&gt;Amati terbentuknya cincin ungu yang berarti sampel mengandung karbohidrat.&lt;br /&gt;- Uji Benendict&lt;br /&gt;Ke dalam tabung reaksi ditambahkan 8 tetes larutan sampel yang mengandung 5 ml reagen Benedict. Kemudian tabung ditempatkan dalam pemanas dan dididihkan selama 3 menit.&lt;br /&gt;Biarkan pada suhu kamar, amati terbentuknya endapan merah bata yang berarti menunjukkan adanya gula pereduksi dalam sampel.&lt;br /&gt;Analisis kwantitatif  karbohidrat air kelapa tua dengan metode Luff Schoorl&lt;br /&gt;1. Diambil  2 ml air kelapa tua tersaring dalam erlenmeyer, tambahkan 10 ml Luff Schoorl dan 10 ml aquades.&lt;br /&gt;2. Dibuat juga larutan blanko sebagai pembanding, yakni aquades, 2 ml dan 10 ml aquades ditambah 10 ml Luff Schoorl.&lt;br /&gt;3. Kedua larutan dididihkan selama 2 menit .&lt;br /&gt;4. Didinginkan cepat-cepat dan ditambahkan 6 ml KI 20%&lt;br /&gt;5. Dengan hati-hati tambahkan 10 ml H2SO4  26,5% melalui dinding Erlenmeyer.&lt;br /&gt;6. Yodium yang dibebaskan dititrasi dengan larutan Na2S2O3 menggunakan indicator  amylum sebanyak 1 – 2 tetes. (Amylum ditambahkan ketika titrasi hampir berakhir agar perubahan warna terlihat jelas).&lt;br /&gt;7. Dengan melihat selisih titrasi sampel dengan titrasi blanko dan mencocokkan dengan tabel maka akan dapat dihitung kadar sukrosa dalam sampel.&lt;br /&gt;2.2.2. Persiapan Substrat&lt;br /&gt;1. Air kelapa tua sebagai bahan baku (BB)disaring dan diambil sebanyak 1000 ml.&lt;br /&gt;2. Panaskan hingga mendidih .&lt;br /&gt;3. Tambahkan gula pasir 10 % BB = 100 g&lt;br /&gt;4. Tambahkan garam inggris 1 pucuk sendik the.&lt;br /&gt;5. Tambahkan pupuk ZA  1 pucuk sendok the.&lt;br /&gt;6. Tambahkan cuka dapur 5 % BB = 50 ml.&lt;br /&gt;7. Angkat dan dinginkan dengan tetap tertutup.&lt;br /&gt;8. Tuangkan larutan hasil ke dalam botol, segera tutup kembali.Kelak ini dipakai sebagai starter bagi pembuatan nata berikutnya.&lt;br /&gt;9. Tuangkan larutan hasil ke dalam cawan yang telah disteril setinggi 1 cm. segera tutup dengan kertas Koran. Substrat telah siap untuk proses fermentasi.&lt;br /&gt;2.2.3. Penyiapan Starter&lt;br /&gt;1. Larutan hasil pada langkah 7 di atas, dituangkan ke dalam botol yang telah disteril. Tutup dengan kertas Koran untuk mencegah kontak dengan udara langsung, biarkan untuk didinginkan.&lt;br /&gt;2. Tambahkan larutan starter sebanyak 10% .&lt;br /&gt;3. Media diinkubasi pada suhu kamar selama 7 hari dalam keadaan tertutup kertas koran dan dijaga tanpa goncangan.&lt;br /&gt;2.2.4. Fermentasi Pembuatan Nata de Coco dengan penambahan Gliserol.&lt;br /&gt;1. Pada larutan substrat dari langkah 8 di atas, ditambahkan 1% gliserol kemudian ditutup lagi dengan kertas Koran.&lt;br /&gt;2. Setelah dingin, ditambahkan larutan starter sebanyak 10%.&lt;br /&gt;3. Media diinkubasi pada suhu kamar selama 7 hari dalam keadaan tertutup kertas koran dan dijaga tanpa goncangan.&lt;br /&gt;2.2.5. Pemanenan&lt;br /&gt;Setelah 7-15 hari natar siap dipanen. Hasil yang baik memiliki ciri penampakan permukaan rata halus dan tebal tak ada air yang tesisa.&lt;br /&gt;1. Angkat dan cuci dengan air mengalir hingga tidak lagi terasa licin.&lt;br /&gt;2. Lembaran nata  dipotong-potong berbentuk kubus 1 x 1 cm.&lt;br /&gt;3. Nata direbus hingga mendidih selama 20 menit.&lt;br /&gt;4. Tiriskan dan cuci lagi.&lt;br /&gt;5. Nata direbus lagi  selama 20 menit. Hal ini dilakukan sampai nata tidak lagi berasa  dan berbau asam.&lt;br /&gt;6. Nata siap dikonsumsi atau dipacking dengan menambahkan air syrup atau zat tambahan lainnya.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;BAB III&lt;br /&gt;HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3.1 Analisis karbohidrat Air Kelapa Tua&lt;br /&gt;Hasil analisa kualitatif dengan metode Molish menunjukkan positif adanya karbohidrat dengan terbentuknya cincin ungu. Uji benedict menunjukkan positif adanya gula pereduksi dengan terbentuknya endapan merah bata. Gambar hasil uji ditunjukkan 3.1.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;                    &lt;br /&gt;(a)                                      (b)&lt;br /&gt;Gambar 3.1 (a) Uji Molish dan (b) Uji benedict &lt;br /&gt;Berdasarkan uji kuantitatif  Luff schoorl dan hasil perhitungan didapatkan kadar karbohidrat air kelapa tua lebih dari 1,515 % b/v. Berikut analisis perhitungan penentuan kadar karbohidrat air kelapa tua:&lt;br /&gt;Volume Na2S2O3 0,1 N yang diperlukan untuk&lt;br /&gt;Titrasi blanko: 12,8 ml&lt;br /&gt;Titrasi sample: 0,5 ml&lt;br /&gt;Selisih volume: 12,3 ml&lt;br /&gt;Berdasarkan tabel pada lampiran , untuk selisih volume lebih besar dari 12 ml, maka kadar sukrosa lebih besar dari 30,3 mg/2 ml sampel atau 15,15 mg/ml.&lt;br /&gt; Kadar sukrosa dalam 100 ml sampel= 15,15 mg/100ml atau 1,515 g/ml. Sehingga kadar karbohidrat air kelapa tua adalah lebih dari  1,515% b/v.&lt;br /&gt;3.2 Proses Pembuatan Nata De Coco&lt;br /&gt;Hasil pembuatan sesuai prosedur kerja menunjukkan starter dapat ditumbuhkan pada air kelapa tua dan secara organoleptik starter yang dihasilkan memiliki kualitas yang baik yang ditandai dengan warna putih. Starter yang dihasilkan masih mengandung banyak gula yang ditandai dengan adanya semut.&lt;br /&gt;Kualitas nata de coco yang dihasilkan dengan bahan baku air kelapa tua tidak jauh berbeda dengan air kelapa muda. Bahkan mungkin lebih baik dari segi ketebalan dan aroma. Nata  de coco yang dihasilkan dari proses fermentasi ditunjukkan gambar 3.2.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;BAB IV&lt;br /&gt;KESIMPULAN&lt;br /&gt;Dari hasil percobaan yang  telah dilakukan, dapat disimpulkan bahwa:&lt;br /&gt;1. Air kelapa tua dapat digunakan sebagai media pembuatan starter dan bahan baku pembuatan nata de coco.&lt;br /&gt;2. Waktu optimum untuk fermentasi adalah 14 hari.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;DAFTAR PUSTAKA&lt;br /&gt;Hasbullah, 2001, Teknologi Tepat Guna Agroindustri Kecil Sumatera Barat, Dewan Ilmu Pengetahuan, Teknologi dan Industri Kecil Sumatera Barat. Jakarta&lt;br /&gt;Sulistyowaty, E. 2009. Petunjuk praktikum Food Technology&lt;br /&gt;Sudarmadji, S., Haryono, B., dan Suhardi., 1997, Prosedur Analisis untuk  Bahan makanan dari Pertanian, edisi keempat, Lyberty, Yogyakarta&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-2422586026708932048?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/2422586026708932048/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/pembuatan-nata-de-coco-dari-air-kelapa.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/2422586026708932048'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/2422586026708932048'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/pembuatan-nata-de-coco-dari-air-kelapa.html' title='PEMBUATAN NATA DE COCO DARI AIR KELAPA TUA DAN PENGUJIAN KADAR GLUKOSA'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-5128516409884621078</id><published>2010-05-03T03:12:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2010-05-03T03:21:12.574-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Food Technology'/><title type='text'>PEMBUATAN NATA DARI AIR KELAPA</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Dasar Teori&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-style: italic;"&gt;Air Kelapa &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Air kelapa kerap diasumsikan sebagai limbah atau paling banter sebagai air segar pengusir dahaga. Padahal, ia memiliki khasiat dan nilai gizi yang dahsyat. Banyak sekali manfaat air kelapa bila diolah dan dikemas dengan baik. Air kelapa bisa dibuat sebagai nata de coco, kecap, dan bahkan dijadikan salah satu minuman kesehatan semacan energy drink.&lt;br /&gt;Secara khusus, air kelapa kaya akan potasium (kalium). Selain mineral, air kelapa juga mengandung gula (bervariasi antara 1,7 sampai 2,6 persen) dan protein (0,07-0,55 persen). Karena komposisi gizi yang demikian itu, air kelapa berpotensi dijadikan bahan baku produk pangan.&lt;br /&gt;Di Filipina, air kelapa dimanfaatkan untuk proses pembuatan minuman, jelly, alkohol, dektran, cuka, dan nata de coco. Di Indonesia, air kelapa digunakan sebatas sebagai minuman (air kelapa muda) dan media pembuatan nata de coco. Yang tak kalah menarik, air kelapa juga bisa dimanfaatkan sebagai bahan pengobatan tradisional dan perawatan kecantikan. Sementara itu, daging buah kelapa muda yang masih seperti susu sangat baik dikonsumsi anak-anak yang menderita kekurangan gizi (nutritional defyciency).&lt;br /&gt;Air kelapa memiliki karakteristik cita rasa yang khas. Di samping itu, air kelapa juga punya kandungan gizi, terutama mineral yang sangat baik untuk tubuh manusia. Kandungan yang terdapat dalam air kelapa tidak hanya unsur makro, tetapi juga unsur mikro. Unsur makro yang terdapat adalah karbon dan nitrogen.&lt;br /&gt;Unsur karbon dalam air kelapa berupa karbohidrat sederhana seperti glukosa, sukrosa, fruktosa, sorbitol, dan inositol. Unsur nitrogen berupa protein yang tersusun dari asam amino, seperti alin, arginin, alanin, sistin, dan serin. Sebagai gambaran, kadar asam amino air kelapa lebih tinggi ketimbang asam amino dalam susu sapi.&lt;br /&gt;Selain karbohidrat dan protein, air kelapa juga mengandung unsur mikro berupa mineral yang dibutuhkan tubuh. Mineral tersebut di antaranya kalium (K), natrium (Na), kalsium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), ferum (Fe), cuprum (Cu), fosfor (P), dan sulfur (S). Yang cukup mencengangkan, dalam air kelapa juga ditemukan berbagai vitamin. Sebut saja vitamin C dan berbagai asam seperti, asam nikotinat, asam pantotenal, dan asam folat. Vitamin B kompleks yang dikandungnya antara lain niacin, riboflavin, dan thiamin.&lt;br /&gt;Buah yang nama botaninya adalah Cocos nucifera ini dikenal dengan nama “Wonder Food”. Disebut demikian karena banyak kandungan nutrisi di dalam buah itu yang dibutuhkan oleh tubuh kita. Di beberapa daerah di tanah air, kelapa merupakan buah yang sakral bahkan cenderung “magis” karena perannya yang sangat penting dalam berbagai ritual keagamaan dan seremonia adat. Dalam mitologi Hindu, kelapa disebut sebagai Tree of Heaven karena kelapa dipercaya dapat membawa kekuatan, kesehatan, umur yang panjang, dan kedamaian.&lt;br /&gt;Kandungan mineral alami dan protein berkualitas tinggi di dalam kelapa sangat baik untuk pertumbuhan dan perbaikan sel-sel dalam tubuh. Airnya dikenal sebagai air mineral dan merupakan minuman penyegar. Kandungan gula yang terdapat pada air kelapa mudah diserap oleh tubuh. Air kelapa merupakan tonik yang sangat baik untuk kesehatan. Air yang terdapat dalam satu buah kelapa cukup untuk memenuhi kebutuhan tubuh akan vitamin C dalam sehari.&lt;br /&gt;Seperti yang kita ketahui, walau kandungan nutrisi yang dikandung air kelapa cukup tinggi namun bersifat isotonik. Secara alami, air kelapa mudah memiliki komposisi mineral dan gula yang sempurna sehingga punya kesetimbangan elektrolit yang sempurna pula, sama halnya dengan cairan tubuh manusia. Itu sebabnya mengapa air kelapa dapat digunakan sebagai pengganti cairan infus. Mengingat komposisi mineral yang dikandungnya, air kelapa punyaipotensi besar untuk dikembangkan sebagai minuman isotonik alami.&lt;br /&gt;Kita ingat, orang tua kita dulu sering memberi kelapa muda hijau ketika menderita demam atau campak. Mereka yakin air kelapa mampu menurunkan panas dalam. Ketika demam, air kelapa dan air putih diminum secara berselang seling untuk mengurangi panas dan rasa sakit.&lt;br /&gt;Minuman air kelapa muda dan memakan dagingnya dapat meredakan kegerahan, mulut kering, demam dengan kehausan, serta penyakit diabetes. Selain itu, minum air kelapa muda dipercaya membuang racun dalam darah. Namun perlu diperhatikan, terlalu banyak minum air kelapa muda menyebabkan sedikit rasa lemas sementara. Bagi yang memiliki gangguan pada tulang, disarankan tidak mengonsumsi air kelapa berlebihan.&lt;br /&gt;Selain itu, ada tradisi di masyarakat yang mengharuskan ibu yang sedang hamil tua untuk sering minum air kelapa muda. Air kelapa ini dipercaya dapat membersihkan janin di dalam rahim sehingga kelak jika si jabang bayi keluar, menjadi bersih, tidak kurapan seperti lemak kering yang menempel pada kulit si bayi.&lt;br /&gt;Air kelapa juga dikenal sebagai obat tradisional kuno yang sangat efektif dalam membasmi berbagai jenis cacing merugikan di dalam usus. Juga sangat baik diminum di pagi hari sebelum mengonsumsi makanan lainnya. Hal itu sangat dianjurkan dilakukan bagi penderita gastritis atau hyperacidity.&lt;br /&gt;Di samping itu, air kelapa sangat bermanfaat dalam pengobatan colitis, luka dalam lambung, diare, disentri, dan wasir. Air kelapa dapat pula mengatasi kerusakan sistem saluran cerna seperti mengurangi gas dalam lambung, mual-mual, dan salah cerna. Bila ditambah madu, sangat baik untuk diminum menjelang tidur bagi yang kesal dengan batuk kering yang diderita.&lt;br /&gt;Bagi penderita kolera, campuran jus jeruk nipis dan air kelapa sangat membantu untuk penyembuhan. Manfaat lain, diketahui air kelapa bersifat diuretic sehingga ccocok untuk mengobati kerusakan saluran kemih, seperti sering kencing, albuminuria, serta membantu dalam penghancuran batu di saluran kemih maupun ginjal.&lt;br /&gt;Dari beberapa penelitian, ternyata air kelapa juga dapat digunakan sebagai media pertumbuhan mikroba, misalnya Acetobocter xylinum untuk produksi nata de coco. Bahkan, saat ini dikembangkan pembuatan minuman berenergi dari air kelapa sebagai alternatif dari sekian banyak minuman energi di pasaran. Dari sekian banyak manfaat air kelapa, kiranya tidak berlebihan bilamana “air ajaib” ini senantiasa menyemarakkan acara berbuka puasa kita. Menyegarkan dan menyehatkan tentunya.&lt;br /&gt;Nata de Coco&lt;br /&gt;Nata de coco sebenarnya adalah selulosa murni produk kegiatan mikroba Acetobacter xylinum. Produk ini dibuat dari air kelapa dan dikonsumsi sebagai makanan berserat yang menyehatkan. Di samping itu nata de coco dapat pula dipergunakan sebagai bahan baku industri.&lt;br /&gt;Produksi nata de coco banyak dipraktekkan di masyarakat sebagai usaha kecil dan menengah. Di tingkat industri kecil, nata de coco dikonsumsi sebagai bahan makanan tambahan dalam bentuk campuran minuman, coktail, puding, es mambo dll. Di tingkat industri menengah, nata de coco dipesan guna memenuhi permintaan industri sebagai bahan baku akustik dan sekat kedap suara.&lt;br /&gt;Masalah yang umum dihadapi pengusaha nata de coco adalah masalah benih. Benih yang biasa dipakai kualitasnya dapat menurun sehingga tingkat keberhasilan produksi rendah dan menghasilkan bau yang kurang sedap dan mengganggu lingkungan.&lt;br /&gt;Nata De Coco merupakan jenis komponen minuman yang terdiri dari senyawa selulosa (dietry fiber), yang dihasilkan dari air kelapa melalui proses fermentasi, yang melibatkan jasad renik (mikrobia), yang selanjutnya dikenal sebagai bibit nata.&lt;br /&gt;Pada prinsipnya untuk mengha-silkan nata de coco yang bermutu baik, maka perlu disediakan me-dia yang dapat mendukung aktivi-tas Acetobacter xylinum untuk memproduksi selulosa ekstra-seluler atau yang kemudian di se-but nata de coco.&lt;br /&gt;Berbagai penelitian ilmiah men-coba menggantikan air buah kelapa dengan bahan lain seperti whey tahu, sari buah nenas, sari buah pisang dll. Kegiatan ilmiah ini menghasilkan produk yang akrab disebut nata de soya, nata de pina dll. Kita tidak akan punya cukup waktu untuk membi-carakan berbagai produk tersebut apalagi untuk membandingkan satu dengan yang lain.&lt;br /&gt;Apakah air buah kelapa meru-pakan satu-satunya hasil tana-man kelapa yang dapat dipergu-nakan untuk pembuatan nata de coco? sehingga sebagian peneliti mencoba menggantikan air buah kelapa dengan bahan baku yang lain dan tidak berasal dari kelapa. Tentunya hal itu bukanlah suatu alasan yang ada dalam pemikiran mereka.&lt;br /&gt;Ternyata selain air buah kelapa, skim santan juga dapat dipergu-nakan sebagai bahan baku utama pembuatan nata de coco. Apakah Anda pernah mendengar tentang skim santan? mungkin ada dari Anda yang menjawab ya dan se-bagian lagi mengatakan tidak!. Hal itu bukanlah persoalan yang ber-arti, untuk terus membaca tulisan ini.&lt;br /&gt;Kita tinggalkan sejenak tentang skim santan untuk melihat se-cara singkat bagaimana sebenar-nnya aktivitas dari Acetobacter xylinum dalam memproduksi nata de coco. Proses terbentuk-nya nata adalah sbb: sel-sel Ace-tobacter Xylinum mengambil glu-kosa dari larutan gula, kemudian digabungkan dengan asam lemak membentuk prekursor pada membran sel, kemudian keluar bersama-sama enzim yang mempolimerisasikan glukosa menjadi selulosa diluar sel. Prekursor dari polisakarida tersebut adalah GDP-glukosa.&lt;br /&gt;Pembentukan prekursor ini distimulir oleh adanya katalisator seperti Ca2+, Mg2+. Prekursor ini kemudian mengalami polimerisasi dan berikatan dengan aseptor membentuk selulosa.&lt;br /&gt;Bibit nata sebenarnya merupakan golongan bakteri dengan nama Acetobacter xylinum. Dalam kehidupan jasad renik, bakteri dapat digolongkan ke dalam tiga kelompok yaitu bakteri yang membahayakan, bakteri yang merugikan dan bekteri yang menguntungkan. Adapun yang termasuk dalam kelompok bakteri yang membahayakan antara lain adalah bakteri yang menghasilkan racun atau menyebabkan infeksi, sedangkan ternasuk dalam kelompok bakteri yang merugikan adalah bakteri pembusuk makanan. Sementara yang termasuk dalam kelompok bakteri yang menguntungkan adalah jenis bakteri yang dapat dimanfaatkan oleh manusia hingga menghasilkan produk yang berguna. Acetobacter xylinum merupakan salah satu contoh bakteri yang menguntungkan bagi manusia seperti halnya bakteri asam laktat pembentuk yoghurt, asinan dan lainnya.&lt;br /&gt;Bakteri Acetobacter xylinum akan dapat membentuk nata jika ditumbuhkan dalam air kelapa yang sudah diperkaya dengan Karbon © dan Nitrogen (N), melalui proses yang terkontrol. Dalam kondisi demikian, bakteri tersebut akan menghasilkan enzim akstraseluler yang dapat menyusun zat gula menjadi ribuan rantai serat atau selulosa. Dari jutaan renik yang tumbuh pada air kelapa tersbeut, akan dihasilkan jutaan lembar benang-benang selulosa yang akhirnya nampak padat berwarna putih hingga transparan, yang disebut sebagai nata.&lt;br /&gt;Nata yang dihasilkan tentunya bisa beragam kualitasnya. Kualitas yang baik akan terpenuhi apabila air kelapa yang digunakan memenuhi standar kualitas bahan nata, dan prosesnya dikendalikan dengan cara yang benar berdasarkan pada factor-faktor yang mempengaruhi pertumbuhan dan aktivitas Acetobacter xylinum yang digunakan. Apabila rasio antara karbon dan nitrogen diatur secara optimal, dan prosesnya terkontrol dengan baik, maka semua cairan akan berubah menjadi nata tanpa meninggalkan residu sedikitpun. Oleh sebab itu, definisi nata yang terapung di atas caian setelah proses fermentasi selesai, tidak berlaku lagi.&lt;br /&gt;Air kelapa yang digunakan dalam pembuatan nata harus berasal dari kelapa yang masak optimal, tidak terlalu tua atau terlalu muda. Bahan tambahan yang diperlukan oleh bakteri antara lain karbohidrat sederhana, sumber nitrogen, dan asam asetat. Pada ummumnya senyawa karbohidrat sederhana dapat digunakan sebagai suplemen pembuatan anta de coco, diantaranya adalah senyawa-senyawa maltosa, sukrosa, laktosa, fruktosa dan manosa. Dari beberapa senyawa karbohidrat sederhana itu sukrosa merupakan senyawa yang paling ekonomis digunakan dan paling baik bagi pertumbuhan dan perkembangan bibit nata. Adapun dari segi warna yang paling baik digunakan adalah sukrosa putih. Sukrosa coklat akan mempengaruhi kenampakan nata sehingga kurang menarik. Sumber nitrogen yang dapat digunakan untuk mendukung pertumbuhan aktivitas bakteri nata dapat berasal dari nitrogen organic, seperti misalnya protein dan ekstrak yeast, maupun Nitrogen an organic seperti misalnya ammonium fosfat, urea, dan ammonium slfat. Namun, sumber nitrogen anorganik sangat murah dan fungsinya tidak kalah jika dibandingkan dengan sumber nitrogen organic. Bahkan diantara sumber nitrogen anorganik ada yang mempunyai sifat lebih yaitu ammonium sulfat. Kelebihan yang dimaksud adalah murah, mudah larut, dan selektif bagi mikroorganisme lain.&lt;br /&gt;Asam asetat atau asam cuka digunakan untuk menurunkan pH atau meningkatkan keasaman air kelapa. Asam asetat yang baik adalah asam asetat glacial (99,8%). Asam asetat dengan konsentrasi rendah dapat digunakan, namun untuk mencapai tingkat keasaman yang diinginkan yaitu pH 4,5 – 5,5 dibutuhkan dalam jumlah banyak. Selain asan asetat, asam-asam organic dan anorganik lain bias digunakan.&lt;br /&gt;Seperti halnya pembuatan beberapa makanan atau minuman hasil fermentasi, pembuatan nata juga memerlukan bibit. Bibit tape biasa disebut ragi, bibit tempe disebut usar, dan bibit nata de coco disebut starter. Bibit nat de coco merupakan suspensi sel A. xylinum. Untuk dapat membuat bibit nata de coco seseorang perlu mengetahui sifat-sifat dari bakteri ini.&lt;br /&gt;Acetobacter Xylinum merupakan bakteri berbentuk batang pendek, yang mempunyai panjang 2 mikron dan lebar , micron, dengan permukaan dinding yang berlendir. Bakteri ini bias membentuk rantai pendek dengan satuan 6-8 sel. Bersifat ninmotil dan dengan pewarnaan Gram menunjukkan Gram negative.&lt;br /&gt;Bakteri ini tidka membentuk endospora maupun pigmen. Pada kultur sel yang masih muda, individu sel berada sendiri-sendiri dan transparan. Koloni yang sudah tua membentuk lapisan menyerupai gelatin yang kokoh menutupi sel koloninya. Pertumbuhan koloni pada medium cair setelah 48 jam inokulasi akan membentuk lapisan pelikel dan dapat dengan mudah diambil dengan jarum oase.&lt;br /&gt;Bakteri ini dapat membentuk asam dari glukosa, etil alcohol, dan propel alcohol, tidak membentuk indol dan mempunyai kemampuan mengoksidasi asam asetat menjadi CO2 dan H2O. sifat yang paling menonjol dari bakteri itu adalah memiliki kemampuan untuk mempolimerisasi glukosa sehingga menjadi selulosa. Selanjutnya selulosa tersebut membentuk matrik yang dikenal sebagai nata. Factor lain yang dominant mempengaruhi sifat fisiologi dalam pembentukan nata adalah ketersediaan nutrisi, derajat keasaman, temperature, dan ketersediaan oksigen.&lt;br /&gt;Bakteri Acetobacter Xylinum mengalami pertumbuhan sel. Pertumbuhan sel didefinisikan sebagai pertumbuhan secara teratur semua komponen di dalam sel hidup. Bakteri Acetobacter Xylinum mengalami beberapa fase pertumbuhan sel yaitu fase adaptasi, fase pertumbuhan awal, fase pertumbuhan eksponensial, fase pertumbuhan lambat, fase pertumbuhan tetap, fase menuju kematian, dan fase kematian.&lt;br /&gt;Apabila bakteri dipindah ke media baru maka bakteri tidak langsung tumbuh melainkan beradaptasi terlebih dahulu. Pad afase terjadi aktivitas metabolismedan pembesaran sel, meskipun belum mengalami pertumbuhan. Fase pertumbuhan adaptasi dicapai pada 0-24 jam sejak inokulasi. Fase pertumbuhan awal dimulai dengan pembelahan sel dengan kecepatan rendah. Fase ini berlangsung beberapa jam saja. Fase eksponensial dicapai antara 1-5 hari. Pada fase ini bakteri mengeluarkan enzim ektraselulerpolimerase sebanyak-banyaknya untuk menyusun polimer glukosa menjadi selulosa (matrik nata). Fase ini sangat menentukan kecepatan suatu strain Acetobacter Xylinum dalam membentuk nata.&lt;br /&gt;Fase pertumbuhan lambat terjadi karena nutrisi telah berkurang, terdapat metabolic yang bersifat racun yang menghambat pertumbuhan bakteri dan umur sel sudah tua. Pada fsae in pertumbuhan tidak stabil, tetapi jumlah sel yang tumbuh masih lebih banyak disbanding jumlah sel mati.&lt;br /&gt;Fase pertumbuhan tetap terjadi keseimbangan antara sel yang tumbuh dan yang mati. Matrik nata lebih banyak diproduksi pada fase ini. Fase menuju kematian terjadi akibat nutrisi dalam media sudah hamper habis. Setelah nutrisi harbi, maka bakteri akan mengalami fase kematian. Pada fase kematian sel dengan cepat mengalami kematian. Bakteri hasil dari fase ini tidak baik untuk strain nata.&lt;br /&gt;Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi Acetobacter Xylinum mengalami pertumbuhan adalah nutrisi, sumber karbon, sumber nitrogen, serta tingkat keasaman media temperature, dan udara (oksigen. Senyawa karbon yang dibutuhkan dalam fermentasi nata berasal dari monosakarida dan disakarida. Sumber dari karbon ini yang paling banyak digunakan adalah gula. Sumber nitrogen bias berasal dari bahan organic seperti ZA, urea. Meskipun bakteri Acetobacter Xylinum dapat tumbuh pada pH 3,5 – 7,5, namun akan tumbuh optimal bila pH nya 4,3. sedangkan suhu ideal bagi pertumbuhan bakteri Acetobacter Xylinum pada suhu 28 – 31 0 C. bakteri ini sangat memerlukan oksigen. Sehingga dalam fermentasi tidak perlu ditutup rapat namun hanya ditutup untuk mencegah kotoran masuk kedalam media yang dapat mengakibatkan kontaminasi.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Bahan-bahan :&lt;br /&gt;1. Air kelapa tua&lt;br /&gt;2. Gula pasir&lt;br /&gt;3. Bakteri Acetobacter xylinum&lt;br /&gt;4. Pupuk ZA&lt;br /&gt;5. Asam cuka&lt;br /&gt;6. Garam Inggris&lt;br /&gt;7. Air&lt;br /&gt;8. Sirup&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Alat-alat :&lt;br /&gt;1. Blender&lt;br /&gt;2. Timbangan&lt;br /&gt;3. Gelas ukur&lt;br /&gt;4. Cetakan&lt;br /&gt;5. Kain saring&lt;br /&gt;6. Sendok&lt;br /&gt;7. Pisau&lt;br /&gt;8. Panci&lt;br /&gt;9. Kompor&lt;br /&gt;10. Pengaduk&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Langkah-langkah pembuatan&lt;br /&gt;1. Menyaring air kelapa dengan saringan&lt;br /&gt;2. Masukkan ke dalam panci lalu panaskan di atas kompor. Setelah mendidih tambahkan gula pasir 0,125 % b/v (1 pucuk sendok the) dan garam inggris 0,01 % b/v. aduk sampai larut lalu angkat&lt;br /&gt;3. Tuangkan ke dalam cetakan yang telah disterlkan (dicuci dengan air panah) segera tutup dengan kertas (Koran, majalah, kertas merang)&lt;br /&gt;Catatan : cetakan harus diletakkan di tempat yang aman, jauh dari jangkauan. Goyangan atau pemindahan cetakan menyebabkan serat nata gagal terbentuk karena bakteri ini bekerja menganyam serat dari atas ke bawah, sehingga bila digoyang menyebabkan bakteri jatuh dan tidak mau bekerja lagi&lt;br /&gt;4. Diamkan sampai dingin (sekitar 1 jam) baru kemudian tambahkan starter (bibit bakteri Acetobacter  xylium)sebanyak 10 persen v/v&lt;br /&gt;5. Fermentasi selama 10 hari&lt;br /&gt;6. Setelah 10 hari serat nata dapat dipanen. Angkat serat nata dari cetakan dan cuci , lalu peras dengan kain saring (agar tidak licin)&lt;br /&gt;7. Iris dengan ukuran sesuai selera lalu masak dengan air sampai mendidih&lt;br /&gt;8. Tiriskan dan peras lagi dengan kain saring lalu masak lagi. Pemasakan dilakukan sampai bau asam cuka menghilang.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-5128516409884621078?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/5128516409884621078/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/pembuatan-nata-dari-air-kelapa.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/5128516409884621078'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/5128516409884621078'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/pembuatan-nata-dari-air-kelapa.html' title='PEMBUATAN NATA DARI AIR KELAPA'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-3784392912194865830</id><published>2010-05-03T03:08:00.001-07:00</published><updated>2010-05-03T03:12:20.354-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Food Technology'/><title type='text'>PEMBUATAN JAHE MERAH INSTANT</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;BAB I&lt;br /&gt;PENDAHULUAN&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.1. Dasar Teori&lt;br /&gt;Jahe (Zingiber officinale), adalah tanaman rimpang yang sangat populer sebagai rempah-rempah dan bahan obat. Rimpangnya berbentuk jemari yang menggembung di ruas-ruas tengah. Rasa dominan pedas disebabkan senyawa keton bernama zingeron. Jahe termasuk suku Zingiberaceae (temu-temuan). Nama ilmiah jahe diberikan oleh William Roxburgh dari kata Yunani zingiberi, dari bahasaSansekerta, singaberi.&lt;br /&gt;Jahe diperkirakan berasal dari India. Namun ada pula yang mempercayai jahe berasal dari Republik Rakyat Cina Selatan. Dari India, jahe dibawa sebagai rempah perdagangan hingga Asia Tenggara, Tiongkok, Jepang, hingga Timur Tengah. Kemudian pada zaman kolonialisme, jahe yang bisa memberikan rasa hangat dan pedas pada makanan segera menjadi komoditas yang populer di Eropa. Karena jahe hanya bisa bertahan hidup di daerah tropis, penanamannya hanya bsia dilakukan di daerah katulistiwa seperi Asia Tenggara, Brasil, danAfrika. Saat ini Equador dan Brasil menjadi pemasok jahe terbesar di dunia.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.2. Latar Belakang&lt;br /&gt;Masyarakat sebenarnya, sudah tahu bahkan sudah merasakan wedang jahe, wedang ronde, bandrek, bajigur, Jahe Aren, akan tetapi cara pembuatan, komposisi, dan nilai ekonomis sebagai peluang pendapatan belum dipahami sepenuhnya. Sebenarnya masyarakat yang maju adalah masyarakat yang produktif bukan konsumtif (pengguna). Masyarakat pengguna adalah masyarakat yang harus banyak uang. Negara yang maju ditunjang oleh masyarakat yang maju, masyarakat yang maju diawali oleh individu-individu yang maju yaitu yang produktif, selektif dan inovatif.&lt;br /&gt;Kebutuhan hidup masyarakat di abad yang serba instan, menuntut kebutuhan yang serba instan, praktis, ekonomis, mudah dan bermanfaat. Dalam pelatihan jahe instan ini kita coba membuat minuman Tradisioanl Alami yang penggunanya menjadi praktis, ekonomis, mudah dan bermanfaat bagi pengguna ( Jahe Instan ), yang semakin diminati karena tanpa bahan kimia buatan.&lt;br /&gt;Jahe dapat menjadi nilai ekonomis yang tinggi dan sumber pendapatan masyarakat pedesaan (pegunungan) apa bila dapat menyulap menjadi produk instan.&lt;br /&gt;Jahe adalah tanaman rimpang yang mudah ditanam sangat populer sebagai rempah-rempah tanaman obat yang bermanfat bagi kesehatan di antaranya :&lt;br /&gt;1) Merangsang hormon adrenalin&lt;br /&gt;2) Memperlebar pembuluh darah&lt;br /&gt;3) Menghangatkan badan&lt;br /&gt;4) Menurunkan tensi darah&lt;br /&gt;5) Mencegah penggumpalan darah (stroke)&lt;br /&gt;6) Menurunkan kolesterol&lt;br /&gt;7) Membantu mengobati flu dan batuk&lt;br /&gt;8) Sesak napas (asma)&lt;br /&gt;9) Meringankan pegel linu, reumatik&lt;br /&gt;10) Sakit kepala&lt;br /&gt;11) Perut mules&lt;br /&gt;12) Melegakan tenggorokan&lt;br /&gt;Begitu banyak manfaat jahe bagi kesehatan maka anda akan senang menkosumsi Jahe Instan di banding minuman instan yang menggunakan kimia buatan.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.3.  Profil Bahan&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Gambar Jahe Merah&lt;br /&gt;Ciri Morfologis&lt;br /&gt;Batang jahe merupakan batang semu dengan tinggi 30 hingga 100 cm. Akarnya berbentuk rimpang dengan daging akar berwarna kuning hingga kemerahan dengan bau menyengat. Daun menyirip dengan panjang 15 hingga 23 mm dan panjang 8 hingga 15 mm. Tangkai daun berbulu halus.&lt;br /&gt;Bunga jahe tumbuh dari dalam tanah berbentuk bulat telur dengan panjang 3,5 hingga 5 cm dan lebar 1,5 hingga 1,75 cm. Gagang bunga bersisik sebanyak 5 hingga 7 buah. Bunga berwarna hijau kekuningan. Bibir bunga dan kepala putik ungu. Tangkai putik berjumlah dua.&lt;br /&gt;Habitat&lt;br /&gt;Jahe tumbuh subur di ketinggian 0 hingga 1500 meter di atas permukaan laut, kecuali jenis jahe gajah di ketinggian 500 hingga 950 meter.&lt;br /&gt;Untuk bisa berproduksi optimal, dibutuhkan curah hujan 2500 hingga 3000 mm per tahun, kelembapan 80% dan tanah lembab dengan PH 5,5 hingga 7,0 dan unsur hara tinggi. Tanah yang digunakan untuk penanaman jahe tidak boleh tergenang.&lt;br /&gt;Varietas&lt;br /&gt;Terdapat tiga jenis jahe yang populer di pasaran, yaitu:&lt;br /&gt;Jahe gajah/jahe badak&lt;br /&gt;Merupakan jahe yang paling disukai di pasaran internasional. Bentuknya besar gemuk dan rasanya tidak terlalu pedas. Daging rimpang berwarna kuning hingga putih.&lt;br /&gt;Jahe kuning&lt;br /&gt;Merupakan jahe yang banyak dipakai sebagai bumbu masakan, terutama untuk konsumsi lokal. Rasa dan aromanya cukup tajam. Ukuran rimpang sedang dengan warna kuning.&lt;br /&gt;Jahe merah&lt;br /&gt;Jahe jenis ini memiliki kandungan minyak asiri tinggi dan rasa paling pedas, sehingga cocok untuk bahan dasar farmasi dan jamu. Ukuran rimpangnya paling kecil dengan warna merah.dengan serat lebih besar dibanding jahe biasa.&lt;br /&gt;Jahe merah (Zingiber officinale Roxb. var Rubra.) atau Zingiberaceae Officinale Roscoe atau Zingiberaceae Officinale Rose adalah tanaman herba semusim, tegak, tinggi 40-50 cm. Batang semu, beralur, membentuk rimpang, warna hijau. Daun tunggal, bentuk lanset, tepi rata, ujung runcing, pangkal tumpul, warna hijau tua. Bunga majemuk, bentuk bulir, sempit, ujung runcing, panjang 3,5-5 cm, lebar 1,5-2 cm, mahkota bunga bentuk corong, panjang 2-2,5 cm, warna ungu. Buah kotak, bulat panjang, warna cokelat.&lt;br /&gt;Kebanyakan literatur yang ditulis tentang jahe merah tercampur dengan jahe putih (jahe gajah) dan jahe kuning (jahe yang biasa dipakai untuk masakan)&lt;br /&gt;Hal tersebut tidak terlalu mengherankan mengingat ketiga macam jenis jahe tersebut mempunyai nama latin yang hampir sama yaitu sama-sama diawali dengan Zingiberaceae Officinale. Selain itu, ketiga jenis jahe tersebut memiliki kandungan yang hampir sama tapi dengan konsentrasi yang berbeda.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Khasiat Dari Jahe Merah&lt;br /&gt;Dalam pengobatan tradisional China Jahe merah digunakan secara luas dalam pengobatan tradisional China. Dikatakan bahwa ia adalah pengobatan Yang dan sangat mendukung limpa kecil, perut/lambung dan ginjal (terutama untuk pria dan juga diklasifikasikan sebagai aphrodisiac/zat perangsang dan pengobatan yang baik untuk impotensi)&lt;br /&gt;Dalam pengobatan Arab Jahe merah dikatakan sebagai panas dalam derajat kedua dan lembab dalam derajat kesatu. Ia menghangatkan dan mempunyai efek melembutkan perut, juga berguna bagi tubuh terhadap masalah pencernaan seperti kembung, keracunan makanan, dan sembelit.&lt;br /&gt;Dalam pengobatan Barat Jahe merah memegang peranan penting dalam dunia pengobatan Barat seperti halnya dalam dunia pengobatan Timur (China, Jepang dan India) Ia bisa digunakan sendirian atau sebagai bahan campuran dalam resep herbal dan juga dipakai sebagai “penyembuhan koreksi” terhadap efek yang tidak diinginkan dari tumbuhan lain. Telah dibuktikan dalam riset terakhir bahwa jahe merah mempunyai kandungan yang unik yang dapat membantu pengobatan lain menjadi lebih baik diterima dan diserap tubuh.&lt;br /&gt;Walaupun jahe merah tidak pernah diteliti dalam pengobatan asma, menurut DR. Suwijiyo Pramono, ahli fitofarmaka dari Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, kemungkinan rasa hangat karena kandungan minyak asiri itulah yang menyebabkan rasa lega bagi penderita asma.&lt;br /&gt;“Pada dasarnya jahe merah tidak memiliki kandungan zat yang bersifat bronko splasmolitika (zat pelega saluran napas). Kemungkinan lain efek antihistamin pada jahe yang menyebabkan asma mereda,” tutur doktor fitokimia lulusan Universite Toulose Perancis itu.&lt;br /&gt;Namun, bagi penderita asma sekaligus maag, sebaiknya menghindari konsumsi jahe merah. Karena gingerolnya mampu menyebabkan lambung panas dan iritasi.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;BAB II&lt;br /&gt;LANGKAH KERJA&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2.1. Langkah Kerja&lt;br /&gt;A. Bahan Yang Digunakan :&lt;br /&gt;1) Jahe Merah 300 gr&lt;br /&gt;2) Gula Pasir 1,2 Kg ( 300 gr x 4 )&lt;br /&gt;3) Cengkeh 3 Biji&lt;br /&gt;4) Kayu Manis (dicuci terlebih dahulu)&lt;br /&gt;5) Merica&lt;br /&gt;6) Aquades&lt;br /&gt;B. Alat Yang Digunakan :&lt;br /&gt;1) Pisau&lt;br /&gt;2) Parutan&lt;br /&gt;3) Kompor (Yang Digunakan Kompor Listrik)&lt;br /&gt;4) Pengaduk&lt;br /&gt;5) Plastik Pengemas&lt;br /&gt;6) Sendok Kecil&lt;br /&gt;C. Langkah-Langkah Pembuatan&lt;br /&gt;1) Rimpang jahe dicuci bersih, dikupas, kemudian diparut.&lt;br /&gt;2) Hasil parutan diperas tanpa air. Setelah Kemudian ampasnya ditambahkan air 100 ml dan diperas lagi.&lt;br /&gt;3) Air hasil perasan jahe dimasukkan ke dalam panci, kemudian dipanaskan dengan menggunakan kompor listrik.&lt;br /&gt;4) Masukkan kayu manis yang sudah dicuci kedalam panci yang sedang dipanaskan.&lt;br /&gt;5) Masukkan cengkeh dan kemiri yang sudah dihancurkan&lt;br /&gt;6) Setelah mendidih masukkan gula 1200 ml ke dalam panci, sambil terus diaduk sampai mengental.&lt;br /&gt;7) Setelah mendidih dan mengental, kompor dimatikan dan panci diangkat. Kemudian diaduk sampai airnya mengering dan menjadi bubuk.&lt;br /&gt;8) Jahe bubuk siap dimasukkan ke dalam plastik kemasan menggunakan sendok kecil.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Gambar-Gambar Praktikum Pembuatan Jahe Instant :&lt;br /&gt;1. Memeras Jahe ( 300 gr ) Yang Sudah Diparut&lt;br /&gt;2. Air Jahe Yang Sudah Diperas&lt;br /&gt;3. Memasukkan Kayu Manis Ke Dalam Air Jahe&lt;br /&gt;4. Memasukkan Kemiri Ke Dalam Air Jahe&lt;br /&gt;5. Memasukkan Cengkeh Ke Dalam Air Jahe&lt;br /&gt;6. Memasukkan Gula 1200 gr Ke Dalam Air Jahe&lt;br /&gt;7. Memasukkan Gula Sambil Terus Diaduk&lt;br /&gt;8. Mengaduk Air Jahe Yang Sudah Dicampur&lt;br /&gt;9. Air Jahe Yang Sudah Dicampur&lt;br /&gt;10. Air Jahe Yang Sudah Mulai Mengental&lt;br /&gt;11. Air Jahe yang sudah Mulai Menjadi Bubuk&lt;br /&gt;12. Air Jahe Yang Sudah Menjadi Bubuk dan Siap Dikemas&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;BAB III&lt;br /&gt;HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3.1. Hasil Jahe Merah Instan&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sifat fisik :&lt;br /&gt;- Warna putih kecoklatan&lt;br /&gt;- Rasa manis pedas&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3.2. Pembahasan&lt;br /&gt; Pada percobaan ini digunakan jahe merah sebagai bahan baku dalam pembuatan minuman instan. Dari hasil pengamatan yang diperoleh selama percobaan dapat terlihat bahwa proses penghalusan jahe dengan menggunakan blender ditanbahkan air untuk memudahkan dalan menghalusan. Akan tetapi volume air yang ditambahkan tidak ada parameter ukuran secara tepat. Akan tetapi penambahan volume air dalam jahe sangat mempengaruhi dalam proses pemanasan jahe, menjadi serbuk gula jahe. Semakin banyak volume air yang digunakan dalan pemblenderan,maka semakin lama pula waktu yang diperlukan untuk penguapan air tersebut menjadi serbuk gula jahe. Begitu pula sebaliknya jika ditambahkan air sesedikit mungkin, maka proses pemanasan gula jahe akan semakin singkat.&lt;br /&gt; Selain itu proses pengadukan juga sangat berpengaruh terhadap produk gula jahe. Jika pengadukan yang dilakukan nerata, maka homogenitas akan tercapai, dan penguapan air dalan jahe akan semakin cepat dan baik.&lt;br /&gt; Produk gula jahe merah yang dihasilkan berasa pedas yang cukup tajam dibandingkan gula jahe dari jahe putih. Hal ini disebabkan karena kandungan senyawa komponen kimia ginger dari jahe merah lebih tinggi daripada jahe putih.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;BAB IV&lt;br /&gt;KESIMPULAN&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dari praktikum Food Technology tentang “Pembuatan Jahe Merah Instan” ini, dapat diketahui jahe mempunyai banyak manfaat. Selain itu, jahe dapat dibuat minuman yang yang menyegarkan dan berkhasiat. Diharapkan dari praktikum pembuatan jahe merah instant ini memberikan manfaat bagi semua praktikan, baik manfaat untuk diri sendiri ataupun sebagai modal apabila ingin membuka usaha kecil nantinya. Sehingga jahe lebih bermanfaat bukan hanya sebagai obat saja, tetapi dapat dimanfaatkan sebagai minuman segar dan menyehatkan.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;DAFTAR PUSTAKA&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Fotocopy praktikum Food Technology&lt;br /&gt;http://www.agrokita.com/in/umkm/304-jahe-merah-instan-plus-nusantara-penjualan-meningkat-tajam-berkat-khasiat&lt;br /&gt;http://www.bursainternet.com/Khasiat-Jahe-Merah.html&lt;br /&gt;http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jahe#Sejarah&lt;br /&gt;http://arensa.blogspot.com/2009_12_01_archive.html&lt;br /&gt;http://jahemerah.blogspot.com/2007/03/profil-jahe-merah.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-3784392912194865830?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/3784392912194865830/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/pembuatan-jahe-merah-instant.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/3784392912194865830'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/3784392912194865830'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/pembuatan-jahe-merah-instant.html' title='PEMBUATAN JAHE MERAH INSTANT'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-4058534220833557116</id><published>2010-05-03T03:03:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2010-05-03T03:06:05.211-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Food Technology'/><title type='text'>PEMBUATAN TEH Dari BUNGA SEPATU Dan ROSELLA</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;BAB I&lt;br /&gt;PENDAHULUAN&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.1. Latar Belakang&lt;br /&gt;Teh adalah minuman yang mengandung kafein, sebuah infusi yang dibuat dengan cara menyeduh daun, pucuk daun, atau tangkai daun yang dikeringkan dari tanaman Camellia sinensis dengan air panas. Teh yang berasal dari tanaman teh dibagi menjadi 4 kelompok: teh hitam, teh oolong, teh hijau, dan teh putih.&lt;br /&gt;Istilah "teh" juga digunakan untuk minuman yang dibuat dari buah, rempah-rempah atau tanaman obat lain yang diseduh, misalnya, teh rosehip, camomile, krisan dan Jiaogulan. Teh yang tidak mengandung daun teh disebut teh herbal.&lt;br /&gt;Teh merupakan sumber alami kafein, teofilin dan antioksidan dengan kadar lemak, karbohidrat atau protein mendekati nol persen. Teh bila diminum terasa sedikit pahit yang merupakan kenikmatan tersendiri dari teh.&lt;br /&gt;Teh bunga dengan campuran kuncup bunga melati yang disebut teh melati atau teh wangi melati merupakan jenis teh yang paling populer di Indonesia[1]. Konsumsi teh di Indonesia sebesar 0,8 kilogram per kapita per tahun masih jauh di bawah negara-negara lain di dunia, walaupun Indonesia merupakan negara penghasil teh terbesar nomor lima di dunia.&lt;br /&gt;Teh mengandung sejenis antioksidan yang bernama katekin. Pada daun teh segar, kadar katekin bisa mencapai 30% dari berat kering. Teh hijau dan teh putih mengandung katekin yang tinggi, sedangkan teh hitam mengandung lebih sedikit katekin karena katekin hilang dalam proses oksidasi. Teh juga mengandung kafein (sekitar 3% dari berat kering atau sekitar 40 mg per cangkir), teofilin dan teobromin dalam jumlah sedikit.&lt;br /&gt;Teh dikelompokan berdasarkan cara pengolahan. Daun teh Camellia sinensis segera layu dan mengalami oksidasi kalau tidak segera dikeringkan setelah dipetik. Proses pengeringan membuat daun menjadi berwarna gelap, karena terjadi pemecahan klorofil dan terlepasnya unsur tanin. Proses selanjutnya berupa pemanasan basah dengan uap panas agar kandungan air pada daun menguap dan proses oksidasi bisa dihentikan pada tahap yang sudah ditentukan. Teh hijau atau teh hitam yang diproses atau dicampur dengan bunga. Teh bunga yang paling populer adalah teh melati (H­eung Pín dalam bahasa Kantonis, Hua Chá dalam bahasa Tionghoa) yang merupakan campuran teh hijau atau teh oolong yang dicampur bunga melati. Bunga-bunga lain yang sering dijadikan campuran teh adalah mawar, seroja, leci dan seruni.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.2. Dasar Teori&lt;br /&gt;Proses produksi teh terdiri atas dua tahap, yakni penguapan dan pengeringan. Terkadang teh putih juga difermentasi dengan sangat ringan. Tanpa adanya pelayuan, penggilingan dan fermentasi ini membuat penampilannya nyaris tak berubah. Proses pembuatan teh instan terdiri dari dua tahapan yaitu tahapan ekstraksi dan tahap penguapan dengan bahan pengisi tertentu. Proses ekstraksi dilakukan dengan cara perendaman bubuk teh dalam air mendidih menggunakan alat batch slurry Proses penguapan dan pengeringan tidak membutuhkan suhu yang tidak terlalu tinggi, yaitu 50-70oC dengan tekanan udara 5-10 mmHg dalam alat vakum dan 191oC pada alat spray dryer.&lt;br /&gt;Bahan pengisi adalah suatu bahan tambahan yang berfungsi untuk melapisi komponen flavor, meningkatkan jumlah total padatan, memperbesar volume, mempercepat pengeringan dan mencegah kerusakan akibat panas. Bahan pengisi yang dapat digunakan adalah gum arab dan pektin dengan batas maksimum penggunaan 500 mg/kg.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.3. Profil bahan:&lt;br /&gt;1.3.1. Bunga Sepatu&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Nama ilmiah Bunga Sepatu adalah  Hibiscus Rosa Sinensis L.,  termasuk kedalam keluarga  kapas-kapasan ( Malvaceae ) dengan nama di daerah bermacam-macam antara lain sebagai berikut : Bunga raja (Sumatra ), Bunga Wera / bunga Rebhang  ( Jawa ), Waribang ( Nusatenggara ), hua hualo ( Maluku ), Dioh / gerasa ( Irian ) sedangkan nama asingnya antara lain : Chinese Hibiscus, Chinarose, Rose de chine, Shoe Flower dan sebagainya.&lt;br /&gt;Uraian tanaman :&lt;br /&gt;Bunga Sepatu berupa perdu tegak, bercabang, tinggi bisa mencapai 1-4 meter, tempat  tumbuh di daerah dataran rendah atau dataran tinggi / pegunungan. Bunga sepatu biasa ditanam dipekarangan rumah yang berfungsi sebagai tanaman hias atau sebagai tanaman pagar. Daunnya tunggal, bertangkai,  dengan letak berseling, sedangkan bentuk daun bulat telur, ujungnya meruncing, tepi bergerigi kasar, panjang daun 3,5 – 9,5 cm, lebar daun 2-6 cm, dengan daun penumpu berbentuk garis bunga tunggal keluar dari ketiak daun, warnanya bermacam-macam. Bunganya kalau dipetik dan ujungnya dihisap maka akan terasa manis. Biasanya dahulu saya sewaktu kecil dan anak-anak lainya sering melakukannya rasanya seperti madu.&lt;br /&gt;Bagian yang berkhasiat dari Bunga Sepatu :&lt;br /&gt;Daun dan Bunganya,  baik  yang masih segar atau yang telah dikeringkan. Kegunaannya, mempunyai efek farmakologis sebagai obat anti radang, anti viral, peluruh kencing, peluruh dahak, dan menormalkan siklus haid. Bunganya sering digunakan untuk pengobatan batuk, mimisan, disentri, infeksi saluran kencing dan haid tidak teratur. Daunnya juga digunakan untuk obat bisul, radang kulit, gondongan dan mimisan.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.3.2. Rosella&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;Rosella, namanya tenar hampir di seluruh penjuru dunia. Belakangan, tanaman ini juga mulai populer di Indonesia. Rosella berasal dari Afrika. Sebut saja namanya Rosella. Tanaman bernama Latin Hibiscus sabdariffa ini sedang naik daun. Padahal sejatinya tanaman ini sudah lama ada di Indonesia. Hanya saja, ia disebut dengan nama yang berbeda di setiap daerah. Darwin (76 tahun), salah satu pembudidaya Rosella juga mengenal tanaman ini sebagai tanaman yang berasal dari luar negeri. Menurut pengakuannya, saat pertama kali menanam Rosella dua tahun yang lalu, tanaman ini belum dikenal seperti sekarang. Dua macam Rosella yang saya miliki berasal dari pemberian seorang rekan yang baru pulang dari Taiwan, dan yang satunya lagi saya dapatkan dari menitip seseorang ketika ia pergi ke Sudan&lt;br /&gt;Memang banyak orang memperlakukan Rosella sebagai pendatang baru dari Afrika, yang diyakini sebagai tempat asalnya. “Padahal tanaman ini sudah lama dikenal oleh masyarakat Indonesia,” ujar Endah Lasmadiwati, herbalis sekaligus Ketua Abdi Pelestari Tanaman Obat Indonesia (APTOI) yang juga menanam Rosella di kebun percontohan tanaman obat miliknya, Taman Sringanis, Bogor.&lt;br /&gt;Dulu kelopak Rosella dikenal sebagai frambozen yang digunakan sebagai bahan pembuat sirup berwarna merah yang beraroma khas. Sekarang ini, kelopak Rosella dikenal sebagai bahan minuman dan disebut teh Rosella. Tanaman yang masih kerabat bunga sepatu ini banyak ditemukan sebagai tanaman pagar,” kata Endah.&lt;br /&gt;Mungkin karena sulit melafalkan nama frambozen, orang Jawa Tengah menyebutnya merambos ijo. Di daerah Pagar Alam, Sumatera Selatan, Rosella disebut kesew jawe dan di daerah Muara Enim disebut asam rejang. Orang Padang menyebutnya asam jarot.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;BAB II&lt;br /&gt;LANGKAH KERJA&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2.1. Langkah Kerja Pembuatan selai dari bunga rosella&lt;br /&gt;A. Bahan Yang Digunakan :&lt;br /&gt;1) Bunga sepatu (mahkota bunga)&lt;br /&gt;2) Bunga rosella (mahkota bunga)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;B. Alat Yang Digunakan :&lt;br /&gt;1)  Pisau&lt;br /&gt;2) Nampan&lt;br /&gt;3) Oven&lt;br /&gt;4) Plastik Pengemas&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;C. Langkah-Langkah Pembuatan&lt;br /&gt;1)  Siapkan bunga sepatu&lt;br /&gt;2) Dipotong mahkotanya per-kelopak&lt;br /&gt;3) Disusun kelopak yang telah di potong pada nampan&lt;br /&gt;4) Dimasukkan dalam oven&lt;br /&gt;5) Di panggang dalam oven dengan suhu 70° C selama 1 jam&lt;br /&gt;6) Keluarkan dari oven setelah 1 jam&lt;br /&gt;7) Masukan kelopak hasil panggangan dalam plastik pengemas&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;BAB III&lt;br /&gt;HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN&lt;br /&gt;1.1. Hasil&lt;br /&gt;1.1.1. Teh bunga sepatu&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sifat fisik ;&lt;br /&gt;1. Warna merah muda-keungguan.&lt;br /&gt;2. Struktur tipis dan rapuh&lt;br /&gt;3. Berbau harum&lt;br /&gt;4. Aroma teh seduh wangi&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.1.2. Teh bunga rosella&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sifat fisik :&lt;br /&gt;1. Warna lebih kehitaman jika dibandingkan dengan produk dari bunga sepatu&lt;br /&gt;2. Rasa lebih masam&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.2. Pembahasan&lt;br /&gt;Dengan metode dan peralatan yang sederhana pembuatan teh dan selai dari bahan baku bunga sepatu dan rosella dapat dilakukan dengan mudah. Untuk rasa dapat ditambahkan zat aditif sesuai selera.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Bab IV&lt;br /&gt;KESIMPULAN&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dengan metode dan peralatan yang sederhana pembuatan teh dan selai dari bahan baku bunga sepatu dan rosella dapat dilakukan dengan mudah. Untuk rasa dapat ditambahkan zat aditif sesuai selera.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Daftar Pustaka&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Catatan Praktikum&lt;br /&gt;Fotocopy praktikum Food Technology&lt;br /&gt;http://teheqush.wordpress.com/2008/05/16/rosella/&lt;br /&gt;http://myrosella.blogspot.com/2007/10/khasiat-bunga-rosella.html&lt;br /&gt;http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/peluang-pengembangan-minyak-melati.html&lt;br /&gt;http://www.bi.go.id/sipuk/id/siabe/eksportir/teknologi_proses.asp?id=3&amp;amp;no=301&amp;amp;id_propinsi=14&amp;amp;id_pohon=ID&amp;amp;nama_propinsi=Riau&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-4058534220833557116?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/4058534220833557116/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/pembuatan-teh-dari-bunga-sepatu-dan.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/4058534220833557116'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/4058534220833557116'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/pembuatan-teh-dari-bunga-sepatu-dan.html' title='PEMBUATAN TEH Dari BUNGA SEPATU Dan ROSELLA'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-6314169043233442167</id><published>2010-05-03T02:59:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2010-05-03T03:03:40.166-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Food Technology'/><title type='text'>PEMBUATAN SELAI Dari BUNGA SEPATU Dan ROSELLA</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;BAB I&lt;br /&gt;PENDAHULUAN&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.1. Dasar Teori&lt;br /&gt;Selai atau selei (bahasa Inggris: jam, bahasa Perancis: confiture) adalah salah satu jenis makanan awetan berupa sari buah atau buah-buahan yang sudah yang sudah dihancurkan, ditambah gula dan dimasak hingga kental atau berbentuk setengah padat. Selai tidak dimakan begitu saja, melainkan untuk dioleskan di atas roti tawar atau sebagai isi roti manis. Selai juga sering digunakan sebagai isi pada kue-kue seperti kue Nastar atau pemanis pada minuman, seperti yogurt dan es krim.&lt;br /&gt;Selai yang di dalamnya masih ditemukan potongan buah dalam berbagai ukuran disebut preserve atau conserves, sedangkan selai yang dibuat dari sari buah dan kulit buah genus Citrus disebut marmalade.&lt;br /&gt;Pektin yang dikandung buah-buahan atau sari buah bereaksi dengan gula dan asam membuat selai menjadi kental. Buah-buahan dengan kadar pektin atau keasaman yang rendah perlu ditambahkan pektin atau asam agar selai bisa menjadi kental.&lt;br /&gt;Di Indonesia, sebagian besar selai dibuat dari buah-buahan tropis seperti: nanas, lobi-lobi, srikaya, jambu biji, pala, dan ceremai. Selai kacang adalah sebutan bahasa Indonesia untuk peanut butter yang dibuat dari kacang tanah yang sudah dihaluskan dicampur mentega atau margarin.&lt;br /&gt;Buah-buahan yang dijadikan selai biasanya buah yang sudah masak, tapi tidak terlalu matang dan mempunyai rasa sedikit masam. Buah-buahan yang umum dijadikan selai, misalnya: stroberi, blueberi, aprikot, apel, anggur, pir, dan fig. Selain itu, selai bisa dibuat dari sayur-sayuran seperti wortel dan seledri, maupun bunga-bungaan, seperti bunga sepatu dan bunga rosella.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.2. Latar Belakang&lt;br /&gt;Ketersediaan tanaman bunga sepatu dan rosella yang melimpah di Indonesia ini merupakan hal yang harus di syukuri. Namun penggunaan tanaman bunga sepatu biasanya hanya untuk tanaman pagar saja, padahal jika kita kaji lebih dalam lagi penggunaan akan tanaman ini sangatlah banyak.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Khusus untuk pengolahan bunga dari bunga sepatu ini belum banyak dikaji. Sedangkan khasiat dari bunga sepatu ini telah terbukti baik untuk kesehatan kita. Untuk itu dengan adanya praktikum pembuatan selai dan teh dari bunga sepatu ini telah membuka cakrawala kita tentang pengolahan bunga sepatu yang bias kita ambil manfaatnya.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.3. Profil bahan&lt;br /&gt;1.3.1. Bunga Sepatu&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Nama ilmiah Bunga Sepatu adalah  Hibiscus Rosa Sinensis L.,  termasuk kedalam keluarga  kapas-kapasan ( Malvaceae ) dengan nama di daerah bermacam-macam antara lain sebagai berikut : Bunga raja (Sumatra ), Bunga Wera / bunga Rebhang  ( Jawa ), Waribang ( Nusatenggara ), hua hualo ( Maluku ), Dioh / gerasa ( Irian ) sedangkan nama asingnya antara lain : Chinese Hibiscus, Chinarose, Rose de chine, Shoe Flower dan sebagainya.&lt;br /&gt;Uraian tanaman :&lt;br /&gt;Bunga Sepatu berupa perdu tegak, bercabang, tinggi bisa mencapai 1-4 meter, tempat  tumbuh di daerah dataran rendah atau dataran tinggi / pegunungan. Bunga sepatu biasa ditanam dipekarangan rumah yang berfungsi sebagai tanaman hias atau sebagai tanaman pagar. Daunnya tunggal, bertangkai,  dengan letak berseling, sedangkan bentuk daun bulat telur, ujungnya meruncing, tepi bergerigi kasar, panjang daun 3,5 – 9,5 cm, lebar daun 2-6 cm, dengan daun penumpu berbentuk garis bunga tunggal keluar dari ketiak daun, warnanya bermacam-macam. Bunganya kalau dipetik dan ujungnya dihisap maka akan terasa manis. Biasanya dahulu saya sewaktu kecil dan anak-anak lainya sering melakukannya rasanya seperti madu.&lt;br /&gt;Bagian yang berkhasiat dari Bunga Sepatu :&lt;br /&gt;Daun dan Bunganya,  baik  yang masih segar atau yang telah dikeringkan. Kegunaannya, mempunyai efek farmakologis sebagai obat anti radang, anti viral, peluruh kencing, peluruh dahak, dan menormalkan siklus haid. Bunganya sering digunakan untuk pengobatan batuk, mimisan, disentri, infeksi saluran kencing dan haid tidak teratur. Daunnya juga digunakan untuk obat bisul, radang kulit, gondongan dan mimisan.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.3.2. Rosella&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;Rosella, namanya tenar hampir di seluruh penjuru dunia. Belakangan, tanaman ini juga mulai populer di Indonesia. Rosella berasal dari Afrika. Sebut saja namanya Rosella. Tanaman bernama Latin Hibiscus sabdariffa ini sedang naik daun. Padahal sejatinya tanaman ini sudah lama ada di Indonesia. Hanya saja, ia disebut dengan nama yang berbeda di setiap daerah. Darwin (76 tahun), salah satu pembudidaya Rosella juga mengenal tanaman ini sebagai tanaman yang berasal dari luar negeri. Menurut pengakuannya, saat pertama kali menanam Rosella dua tahun yang lalu, tanaman ini belum dikenal seperti sekarang. Dua macam Rosella yang saya miliki berasal dari pemberian seorang rekan yang baru pulang dari Taiwan, dan yang satunya lagi saya dapatkan dari menitip seseorang ketika ia pergi ke Sudan&lt;br /&gt;Memang banyak orang memperlakukan Rosella sebagai pendatang baru dari Afrika, yang diyakini sebagai tempat asalnya. “Padahal tanaman ini sudah lama dikenal oleh masyarakat Indonesia,” ujar Endah Lasmadiwati, herbalis sekaligus Ketua Abdi Pelestari Tanaman Obat Indonesia (APTOI) yang juga menanam Rosella di kebun percontohan tanaman obat miliknya, Taman Sringanis, Bogor.&lt;br /&gt;Dulu kelopak Rosella dikenal sebagai frambozen yang digunakan sebagai bahan pembuat sirup berwarna merah yang beraroma khas. Sekarang ini, kelopak Rosella dikenal sebagai bahan minuman dan disebut teh Rosella. Tanaman yang masih kerabat bunga sepatu ini banyak ditemukan sebagai tanaman pagar,” kata Endah.&lt;br /&gt;Mungkin karena sulit melafalkan nama frambozen, orang Jawa Tengah menyebutnya merambos ijo. Di daerah Pagar Alam, Sumatera Selatan, Rosella disebut kesew jawe dan di daerah Muara Enim disebut asam rejang. Orang Padang menyebutnya asam jarot.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;BAB II&lt;br /&gt;LANGKAH KERJA&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2.1. Langkah Kerja Pembuatan selai dari bunga sepatu&lt;br /&gt;A. Bahan Yang Digunakan :&lt;br /&gt;1) Bunga Sepatu (mahkota bunga)&lt;br /&gt;2) Tepung maizena&lt;br /&gt;3) Air&lt;br /&gt;4) Gula pasir&lt;br /&gt;5) Jeruk nipis&lt;br /&gt;6) Vanili&lt;br /&gt;7) Garam&lt;br /&gt;B. Alat Yang Digunakan :&lt;br /&gt;1) Pisau&lt;br /&gt;2) Blender&lt;br /&gt;3) Panci&lt;br /&gt;4) Kompor (Yang Digunakan Kompor Listrik)&lt;br /&gt;5) Pengaduk&lt;br /&gt;6) Plastik Pengemas&lt;br /&gt;7) Sendok Kecil(teh)&lt;br /&gt;8) Timbangan&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;C. Langkah-Langkah Pembuatan&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1) Disiapkan bunga sepatu sebanyak 50 gr.&lt;br /&gt;2) Dibersihkan dengan air&lt;br /&gt;3) Di blender hingga halus&lt;br /&gt;4) Ditambahkan tepung maizena&lt;br /&gt;5) Direbus hingga mendidih&lt;br /&gt;6) Tambahkan gula sebanyak 25 gr&lt;br /&gt;7) Tambahkan jeruk nipis&lt;br /&gt;8) Tambahkan Vanili sebanyak setengah bungkus&lt;br /&gt;9) Tambahkan garam sepucuk sendok teh(kecil)&lt;br /&gt;10) Biarkan direbus hingga mengental.&lt;br /&gt;2.2. Langkah Kerja Pembuatan selai dari bunga rosella&lt;br /&gt;A. Bahan Yang Digunakan :&lt;br /&gt;1) Bunga Rosella (mahkota bunga)&lt;br /&gt;2) Tepung maizena&lt;br /&gt;3) Air&lt;br /&gt;4) Gula pasir&lt;br /&gt;5) Air jeruk nipis&lt;br /&gt;6) Vanili&lt;br /&gt;7) Garam&lt;br /&gt;B. Alat Yang Digunakan :&lt;br /&gt;1) Pisau&lt;br /&gt;2) Blender&lt;br /&gt;3) Panci&lt;br /&gt;4) Kompor (Yang Digunakan Kompor Listrik)&lt;br /&gt;5) Pengaduk&lt;br /&gt;6) Plastik Pengemas&lt;br /&gt;7) Sendok Kecil(teh)&lt;br /&gt;8) Timbangan&lt;br /&gt;C. Langkah-Langkah Pembuatan&lt;br /&gt;1) Disiapkan bunga Rosella sebanyak 50 gr.&lt;br /&gt;2) Dibersihkan dengan air&lt;br /&gt;3) Di blender hingga halus&lt;br /&gt;4) Ditambahkan tepung maizena&lt;br /&gt;5) Direbus hingga mendidih&lt;br /&gt;6) Tambahkan gula sebanyak 25 gr&lt;br /&gt;7) Tambahkan Vanili sebanyak setengah bungkus&lt;br /&gt;8) Tambahkan garam sepucuk sendok teh(kecil)&lt;br /&gt;9) Biarkan direbus hingga mengental&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;BAB III&lt;br /&gt;HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3.1. Hasil&lt;br /&gt;3.1.1. Selai bunga sepatu&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sifat fisik selai bunga sepatu adalah sebagai berikut :&lt;br /&gt;1. Warna merah cerah&lt;br /&gt;2. Rasanya manis kemasaman&lt;br /&gt;3. Tekstur sangat halus&lt;br /&gt;4. Struktur produk lebih encer&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3.1.2. Selai bunga rosella&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;sifat fisik selai rosella adalah sebagai berikut :&lt;br /&gt;1. warna merah pekat&lt;br /&gt;2. rasa manis kemasaman&lt;br /&gt;3. Tekstur lebih kasar&lt;br /&gt;4. Struktur terasa pekat.&lt;br /&gt;4.2. Pembahasan&lt;br /&gt;Bunga sepatu dan bunga rosella yang dakan digunakan untuk bahan baku dalam pembuatan selai, sebelumnya dibersihkan dan dipisahkan dari kelopak dan putik bunga. Sehingga hanya akan digunakan pada bagian mahkota bunga.&lt;br /&gt;Pada percobaan ini ditambahkan tepung maizena pada saat bahan baku (bunga sepatu dan rosella) dihaluskan dengan blender. Fungsi dari penambahan  tepung maizena ini ialah untuk membentuk struktur selai menjadi lebih kental. Selanjutnya dilakukan pembilasan dengan air, dimana volume penambahannya diusahakan sesedikit mungkin hal ini untuk mempermudah dan mempercepat proses penguapan selai untuk menjadi lebih pekat.&lt;br /&gt;Selanjutnya ditambahklan bumbu bumbu untuk membentuk dan meningkatkan citarasa dari selai ditambahkan air perasan jeruk nipis, vanili, gula, dan garam dapur. Penambahan air jeruk ini hanya berlaku pada pembuatan selai dari bunga sepatu. Tujuan dari pemanbahan air asam dari jeruk nipis ini ialah untuk mengugah warna selai menjadi merah cerah, sehingga lebih menarik tampilan fisiknya, selain itu untuk meningkatkan cita rasa agar lebih sedikit masam. Penambahan asam dari jeruk nipis dapat diganti dengan asam cuka akan tetapi aroma rasa yang dihasilkan dari asam cuka kurang menarik. Sedangkan pemambahan gula, vanili dan garan bertujuan untuk meningkatkan cita rasa dari selai.&lt;br /&gt;Sama halnya pada percobaan pembuatan selai dari bunga sepatu, hanya saja pada pembuatan selai dengan bunga rosella, tanpa dilakukan pemabahan air perasan jeruk nipis. Hal ini disebabkan karena sifat kandungan kimia dari bunga rosella yang memiliki kecenderungan rasa yang asam sehingga, air jeruk nipis tidak diperluka. Sehingga dari hasil selai bunga rosella nampak warna merah yang lebih gelap, dan berasa agak sedikit masam, meskipun tanpa penambahan jeruk nipis rasa selai tetap masam.&lt;br /&gt;Pada perbandingan hasil produk selai yang didapati, selai dari bunga sepatu memiliki tekstur yang halus dan lebih cair, sedangkan untuk selai bunga rosella memiliki tekstir yang lebih kasar dan lebih padat. Hal ini mungkin dapat disebabkan pada saat melalukan percobaan penambahan air untuk bilasan blender terlalu banyak, sehingga pada saat pemanasan proses penguapan air dibutuhkan waktu yang lama, dan belum menguap seluruhya. Sehingga kadar air dari selai bunga sepatu tinggi, dibandingkan selai dari bunga rosella. Selain itu, sifat fisik dari bahan baku, kandungan air, dan lamanya proses penghalusan dengan blender juga mempengaruhi tekstur dari produk selai yang dihasilkan.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Bab IV&lt;br /&gt;KESIMPULAN&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1. Selai dapat di buat dari bunga sepatu dan bunga rosella.&lt;br /&gt;2. Sifat fisik, kadar air, dan lamanya penghalusan bahan berpengaruh terhadap hasil produksi selai.&lt;br /&gt;3. Penambahan asam dari jeruk nipis dapat mengubah tampilan warna pada produksi selai.&lt;br /&gt;4. Penambahan gula, vanili, garam dapur dan jeruk nipis dapat meningkatkan aroma rasa dari selai.&lt;br /&gt;5. Bunga rosella memiliki sifat kimia yang lebih masam, sehingga tidak perlu penambahan air asam dari jeruk nipis.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Daftar Pustaka&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Catatan Praktikum&lt;br /&gt;Fotocopy praktikum Food Technology&lt;br /&gt;http://pemiwan.wordpress.com/2009/02/16/khasiat-bunga-sepatu-hibiscus-rosa-sinensis-l/&lt;br /&gt;http://images.google.co.id/imglanding?q=bunga%20sepatu&amp;amp;imgurl=http://jogjacreative.files.wordpress.com/2009/08/bunga-sepatu.jpg&lt;br /&gt;http://images.google.co.id/imglanding?q=bunga%20rosella%20merah&amp;amp;imgurl&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-6314169043233442167?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/6314169043233442167/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/pembuatan-selai-dari-bunga-sepatu-dan.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/6314169043233442167'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/6314169043233442167'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/pembuatan-selai-dari-bunga-sepatu-dan.html' title='PEMBUATAN SELAI Dari BUNGA SEPATU Dan ROSELLA'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-2302225232262087052</id><published>2010-05-03T02:51:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2010-05-03T02:57:48.063-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Food Technology'/><title type='text'>PEMBUATAN NATA DARI LIMBAH KULIT PISANG DENGAN PENENTUAN KADAR SUKROSA</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;BAB I&lt;br /&gt;PENDAHULUAN&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.1.  Latar Belakang&lt;br /&gt;Nata adalah serat yang berbentuk seperti gel yang dibuat dengan memanfaatkan kerja bakteri Acetobacter xylinum. Asam cuka dan pupuk ZA berfungsi untuk media hidup bagi bakteri Acetobacter xylinum. Bakteri ini membutuhkan nitrogen dari pupuk ZA dan keasaman dari cuka. Acetobacter xylinum inilah yang nanti akan membentuk nata. Bakteri ini termasuk genus Acetobacter yang memiliki sifat gram negatif, aerob dan berbentuk batang pendek atau kokus.&lt;br /&gt;Untuk membuat nata, dapat digunakan bahan-bahan yang lain seperti kulit pisang atau jus buah-buahan yang mengandung gula. Dalam media cair tersebut bakteri akan tumbuh dan menghasilkan suatu lapisan yang dikenal dengan “nata”.&lt;br /&gt;Metode yang dilakukan adalah mengadakan kerjasama dengan sektor usaha kecil yang memanfaatkan buah pisang, misalnya : usaha gorengan, pabrik roti isi pisang, pabrik kripik pisang, dan lain-lain. Setelah kulit pisang diperoleh, lalu kulit pisang diolah menjadi nata.&lt;br /&gt;Nata de Banana merupakan makanan pencuci mulut (desert). Nata de Banana adalah makanan yang banyak mengandung serat, mengandung selulosa kadar tinggi yang bermanfaat bagi kesehatan dalam membantu pencernaan.&lt;br /&gt;Kadungan kalori yang rendah pada Nata de Banana merupakan pertimbangan yang tepat produk Nata de Banana sebagai makan diet. Dari segi penampilannya makanan ini memiliki nilai estetika yang tinggi, penampilan warna putih agak bening, tekstur kenyal, aroma segar. Dengan penampilan tersebut maka nata sebagai makanan desert memiliki daya tarik yang tinggi. Dari segi ekonomi produksi nata de banana menjanjikan nilai tambah. Pembuatan nata yang diperkaya dengan vitamin dan mineral akan mempertinggi nilai gizi dari produk ini.&lt;br /&gt;Nata de Banana dibentuk oleh spesies bakteri asam asetat pada permukaan cairan yang mengandung gula, sari buah, atau ekstrak tanaman lain. Beberapa spesies yang termasuk bakteri asam asetat dapat membentuk selulosa, namun selama ini yang paling banyak dipelajari adalah Acetobacter xylinum. Bakteri Acetobacter xylinum termasuk genus Acetobacter. Bakteri Acetobacter xylinum bersifat Gram negatip, aerob, berbentuk batang pendek atau kokus.&lt;br /&gt;Pemanfaatan limbah pengolahan pisang berupa kulit pisang merupakan cara mengoptimalkan pemanfaatan buah pisang. Limbah kulit pisang cukup baik digunakan untuk substrat pembuatan Nata de Banana. Dalam kulit pisang terdapat berbagai nutrisi yang bisa dimanfaatkan bakteri penghasil Nata de Banana. Nutrisi yang terkandung dalam kulit pisang antara lain : gula sukrosa 1,28%, sumber mineral yang beragam antara lain Mg2+ 3,54 gr/l, serta adanya faktor pendukung pertumbuhan (growth promoting factor) merupakan senyawa yang mampu meningkatkan pertumbuhan bakteri penghasil nata (Acetobacter xylinum).&lt;br /&gt;Adanya gula sukrosa dalam kulit pisang akan dimanfaatkan oleh Acetobacter xylinum sebagai sumber energi, maupun sumber karbon untuk membentuk senyawa metabolit diantaranya adalah selulosa yang membentuk Nata de Banana. Senyawa peningkat pertumbuhan mikroba (growth promoting factor) akan meningkatkan pertumbuhan mikroba, sedangkan adanya mineral dalam substrat akan membantu meningkatkan aktifitas enzim kinase dalam metabolisme di dalam sel Acetobacter xylinum untuk menghasilkan selulosa.&lt;br /&gt;Untuk memanfaatkan kulit pisang menjadi bernilai guna, maka dibutuhkan keahlian dan strategi untuk mensosialisasikan produk yang akan dihasilkan agar diterima di masyarakat. Hal itulah yang mendorong munculnya minuman nata berbahan dasar kulit pisang saat ini.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.2. Dasar teori&lt;br /&gt;Pembuatan nata merupakan salah satu cara yang bisa dilakukan untuk mengatasi masalah limbah rumah tangga (kulit pisang, kulit pisang, kulit nanas, dll) dengan bantuan bakeri Acetobakter xylinum. Pembuatan nata de banana skin dimulai dengan mendidihkan ekstrak kulit pisang dengan ditambahkan cuka, gula dan bahan tambahan lainya, kemudian disimpan dalam wadah untuk diinokulasi. Dalam penginokulasian harus pada suhu kamar. Kemudian disimpan selama kurang lebih 10-15 hari atau sampai adanya lembaran nata.&lt;br /&gt;Bibit nata adalah bakteri Acotobacter xylinum yang akan dapat membentuk serat nata jika ditumbuhkan dalam air perasan kulit pisang yang sudah diperkaya dengan karbon dan nitrogen melalui proses yang terkontrol. Dalam kondisi demikian, bakteri tersebut akan menghasilkan enzim yang dapat menyusun zat gula menjadi ribuan rantai serat atau selulosa. Dari jutaan renik yang tumbuh pada kulit pisang tersebut, akan dihasilkan jutaan lembar benang-benang selulosa yang akhirnya nampak padat berwarna putih hingga transparan, yang disebut sebagai nata. Acetobacter Xylinum dapat tumbuh pada pH 3,5 – 7,5, namun akan tumbuh optimal bila pH nya 4,3, sedangkan suhu ideal bagi pertumbuhan bakteri Acetobacter Xylinum pada suhu 28°– 31°C. Bakteri ini sangat memerlukan oksigen.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Fermentasi&lt;br /&gt;Fermentasi adalah suatu proses pengubahan senyawa yang terkandung di dalam substrat oleh mikroba (kulture) misalkan senyawa gula menjadi bentuk lain (misalkan selulosa / Nata de Coco), baik merupakan proses pemecahan maupun proses pembentukan dalam situasi aerob maupun anaerob. Jadi proses fermentasi bisa terjadi proses katabolisme maupun proses anabolisme.&lt;br /&gt;Fermentasi substrat air kelapa yang telah dipersiapkan sebelumnya prosesnya sebagai berikut; substrat air kelapa disterilkan dengan menggunakan outoclave atau dengan cara didihkan selama 15 menit. Substrat didinginkan hingga suhu 40oC. Substrat dimasukkan pada nampan atau baskom steril dengan permukaan yang lebar, dengan kedalaman substrat kira-kira 5 cm. Substrat diinokulasi dengan menggunakan starter atau bibit sebanyak 10 % (v/v). Substrat kemudian diaduk rata, ditutup dengan menggunakan kain kasa. Nampan diinkubasi atau diperam dengan cara diletakan pada tempat yang bersih, terhindar dari debu, ditutup dengan menggunakan kain bersih untuk menghindari terjadinya kontaminasi. Inkubasi dilakukan selama 10 – 15 hari, pada suhu kamar. Pada tahap fermentasi ini tidak boleh digojok. Pada umur 10-15 hari nata dapat dipanen.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Penentuan Sukrosa&lt;br /&gt; Penentuan sukrosa dapat langsung ditentukan jumlahnya dengan refraktometer, selain itu dapat dianalisa dengan cara kimia yaitu dengan menentukan gula reduksi yang dihasilkan setelah sukrosa dihidrolisisa dengan asam atau dengan enzim. Penentuannya dapat secara luff schorl, Lane Eyenon, Munson Walker, iodometri, atau cara enzimatis atau spektrofotometri.&lt;br /&gt; Hidrolisa sukrosa akan dihasilkan 2 mol gula reduksi yang berupa fruktosa yang dapat dituliskan sebagai berikut :&lt;br /&gt;C6 H22 O11 + H2 O  C6 H12 O6 + C6 H12 O6&lt;br /&gt;Sukrosa  Fruktoa Glukosa&lt;br /&gt;BM= 342  BM= 180 BM=180&lt;br /&gt; Setelah diketahui jumlah gula reduksi yang dihasilkan dari hidrolisa sukrosa maka dapat dihitung jumlah sukrosa yaitu dengan mengalikan dengan suatu faktor sebesar 0,95. Faktor ini diperoleh dari perbandingan BM sukrosadengan BM dua molekul gula reduksi&lt;br /&gt;Faktor konversi =  BM sukrosa  = 342 / 2x 180 = 0,95&lt;br /&gt;   2 BM gula reduksi&lt;br /&gt;Luff Schoorl&lt;br /&gt;Pada metode Luff Schoorl terdapat dua cara pengukuran yaitu        :&lt;br /&gt;  1. Penentuan Cu tereduksi dengan I2&lt;br /&gt;  2. Menggunakan prosedur Lae-Eynon&lt;br /&gt;Metode Luff Schoorl ini baik digunakan untuk menentukan kadar karbohidrat yang berukuran sedang. Dalam penelitian M.Verhaart dinyatakan bahwa metode Luff Schoorl merupakan metode tebaik untuk mengukur kadar karbohidrat dengan tingkat kesalahan sebesar 10%.&lt;br /&gt;Metode Luff Schoorl mempunyai kelemahan yang terutama disebabkan oleh komposisi yang konstan. Hal ini diketahui dari penelitian A.M Maiden yang menjelaskan bahwa hasil pengukuran yang diperoleh dibedakan oleh pebuatan reagen yang berbeda.&lt;br /&gt;Pengukuran karbohidrat yang merupakan gula pereduksi dengan metode Luff Schoorl ini didasarkan pada reaksi sebagai berikut  :&lt;br /&gt;R-CHO + 2 Cu2+ R-COOH + Cu2O&lt;br /&gt;2 Cu2+ + 4 I- Cu2I2 + I2&lt;br /&gt;2 S2O32- + I2 S4O62- + 2 I-&lt;br /&gt;Monosakarida akan mereduksikan CuO dalam larutan Luff menjadi Cu2O. Kelebihan CuO akan direduksikan dengan KI berlebih, sehingga dilepaskan I2. I2 yang dibebaskan tersebut dititrasi dengan larutan Na2S2O3. Pada dasarnya prinsip metode analisa yang digunakan adalah Iodometri karena kita akan menganalisa I2 yang bebas untuk dijadikan dasar penetapan kadar. Dimana proses iodometri adalah proses titrasi terhadap iodium (I2) bebas dalam larutan. Apabila terdapat zat oksidator kuat (misal H2SO4) dalam larutannya yang bersifat netral atau sedikit asam penambahan ion iodida berlebih akan membuat zat oksidator tersebut tereduksi dan membebaskan I2 yang setara jumlahnya dengan dengan banyaknya oksidator. I2 bebas ini selanjutnya akan dititrasi dengan larutan standar Na2S2O3 sehinga I2 akan membentuk kompleks iod-amilum yang tidak larut dalam air. Oleh karena itu, jika dalam suatu titrasi membutuhkan indikator amilum, maka penambahan amilum sebelum titik ekivalen.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; Molish&lt;br /&gt; Karbohidrat oleh asam sulfat akan dihidrolisa menjadi monosakarida dan selanjutnya monosakarida mengalami dehidrasi oleh asam sulfat menjadi furfural atau hidroksi metil furfural. Furfural atau hidroksi metil furfural dengan alfa naftol akan berkondensasi membentuk senyawa kompleks yang berwarna ungu. Apabila pemberian asam sulfat pada larutan karbohidrat yang telah diberi alfa naftoh melelui dinding gelas dan secara hati-hati maka warna ungu yang terbentuk berupa cincin pada batas antara larutan karbohidrat dengan asam sulfat.&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;br /&gt;Fufural    Alfa naftol  Metil furfural&lt;br /&gt;Dehidrasi pentosa oleh asam akan dihasilkan furfural, dehidrasi heksosa menghasilkan hiodroksi metil furfural, dan hidriksi ramnosa dehasilkan metil furfural.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.3. Profil bahan&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pisang adalah nama umum yang diberikan pada tumbuhan terna raksasa berdaun besar memanjang dari suku Musaceae. Beberapa jenisnya (Musa acuminata, M. balbisiana, dan M. ×paradisiaca) menghasilkan buah konsumsi yang dinamakan sama. Buah ini tersusun dalam tandan dengan kelompok-kelompok tersusun menjari, yang disebut sisir. Hampir semua buah pisang memiliki kulit berwarna kuning ketika matang, meskipun ada beberapa yang berwarna jingga, merah, ungu, atau bahkan hampir hitam. Buah pisang sebagai bahan pangan merupakan sumber energi (karbohidrat) dan mineral, terutama kalium.&lt;br /&gt;Nilai energi pisang sekitar 136 kalori untuk setiap 100 gram, yang secara keseluruhan berasal dari karbohidrat. Nilai energi pisang dua kali lipat lebih tinggi daripada apel. Apel dengan berat sama (100 gram) hanya mengandung 54 kalori. Karbohidrat pisang menyediakan energi sedikit lebih lambat dibandingkan dengan gula pasir dan sirup, tetapi lebih cepat dari nasi, biskuit, dan sejenis roti. Oleh sebab itu, banyak atlet saat jeda atau istirahat mengonsumsi pisang sebagai cadangan energi.&lt;br /&gt;Kandungan energi pisang merupakan energi instan, yang mudah tersedia dalam waktu singkat, sehingga bermanfaat dalam menyediakan kebutuhan kalori sesaat. Karbohidrat pisang merupakan karbohidrat kompleks tingkat sedang dan tersedia secara bertahap, sehingga dapat menyediakan energi dalam waktu tidak terlalu cepat. Karbohidrat pisang merupakan cadangan energi yang sangat baik digunakan dan dapat secara cepat tersedia bagi tubuh.&lt;br /&gt;Gula pisang merupakan gula buah, yaitu terdiri dari fruktosa yang mempunyai indek glikemik lebih rendah dibandingkan dengan glukosa, sehingga cukup baik sebagai penyimpan energi karena sedikit lebih lambat dimetabolisme. Sehabis bekerja keras atau berpikir, selalu timbul rasa kantuk. Keadaan ini merupakan tanda-tanda otak kekurangan energi, sehingga aktivitas secara biologis juga menurun.&lt;br /&gt;Glukosa darah terutama didapat dari asupan makanan sumber karbohidrat. Pisang adalah alternatif terbaik untuk menyediakan energi di saat-saat istirahat atau jeda, pada waktu otak sangat membutuhkan energi yang cepat tersedia untuk aktivitas biologis.&lt;br /&gt;Namun, kandungan protein dan lemak pisang ternyata kurang bagus dan sangat rendah, yaitu hanya 2,3 persen dan 0,13 persen. Meski demikian, kandungan lemak dan protein pisang masih lebih tinggi dari apel, yang hanya 0,3 persen. Karena itu, tidak perlu takut kegemukan walau mengonsumsi pisang dalam jumlah banyak.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;BAB II&lt;br /&gt;LANGKAH KERJA&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2.1. Bahan Yang Digunakan :&lt;br /&gt;1. Kulit pisang kapok&lt;br /&gt;2. Gula pasir&lt;br /&gt;3. Bakteri Acetobacter xylinum&lt;br /&gt;4. Pupuk ZA&lt;br /&gt;5. Asam cuka&lt;br /&gt;6. Garam Inggris&lt;br /&gt;7. Air&lt;br /&gt;8. Sirup&lt;br /&gt;9. Amilum&lt;br /&gt;10. Indikator luff schoorl&lt;br /&gt;11. Indikator molisch&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2.2. Alat Yang Digunakan :&lt;br /&gt;1. Blender&lt;br /&gt;2. Timbangan&lt;br /&gt;3. Gelas ukur&lt;br /&gt;4. Cetakan&lt;br /&gt;5. Kain saring&lt;br /&gt;6. Sendok &lt;br /&gt;7. Pisau&lt;br /&gt;8. Panci&lt;br /&gt;9. Kompor&lt;br /&gt;10. Pengaduk&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2.3. Langkah – langkah Pembuatan Nata :&lt;br /&gt;1. Daging buah yang menempel pada kulit pisang bagian dalam dikerok.&lt;br /&gt;2. Ditimbang sebanyak 400 gr.&lt;br /&gt;3. Ditambahkan air dengan perbandingan 1 : 2, lalu diblender hingga halus.&lt;br /&gt;4. Rebus air sebanyak 800 ml. 600 ml untuk pencampuran nata, sedangkan sisanya untuk mensterilkan botol kaca dan toples.&lt;br /&gt;5. Disaring dengan kain saring hingga diperoleh filtrat (cairan hasil penyaringan).&lt;br /&gt;6. Masukkan ke dalam panci lalu panaskan di atas kompor. Setelah mendidih, tambahkan gula pasir 10 % b/v, asam cuka 0,5 %v/v (bila yang digunakan asam cuka di pasaran 4-5 % v/v), pupuk ZA 0,125% b/v ( 1 pucuk sendok teh), dan garam Inggris 0,01 % b/v. Aduk sampai larut lalu angkat.&lt;br /&gt;7. Tuangkan ke dalam cetakan yang telah disterilkan (dicuci dengan air panas), dengan ketinggian cairan adonan lebih kurang 2-3 cm di setiap cetakan. Segera tutup dengan kertas (Koran, majalah, kertas merang).&lt;br /&gt;Catatan : cetakan ditutup dengan kertas koran supaya udara tetap bisa masuk melalui pori-pori kertas.&lt;br /&gt;8. Diamkan sampai dingin (sekitar 1 jam), baru kemudian ditambahkan starter (bibit bakteri Acetobacter xylinum sebanyak 10% v/v.&lt;br /&gt;Catatan :&lt;br /&gt;- Sebelum memasukkan bakteri, adonan harus benar-benar dingin, sebab kalau masih panas bakteri akan mati.&lt;br /&gt;- Cetakan harus diletakkan di tempat yang aman, jauh dari gangguan. Goyangan atau pemindahan cetakan menyebabkan serat nata gagal terbentuk karena bakteri ini bekerja menganyam serat dari atas ke bawah, sehingga bila digoyang menyebabkan bakteri jatuh dan tidak mau bekerja lagi.&lt;br /&gt;9. Fermentasi selama 10 hari.&lt;br /&gt;10. Setelah 10 hari,serta nata dapat dipanen. Angkat serat nata dari cetakan dan cuci, lalu peras dengan kain saring (agar tidak licin).&lt;br /&gt;11. Iris dengan ukuran sesuai selera, lalu masak dengan air sampai mendidih.&lt;br /&gt;12. Tiriskan dan peras lagi dengan kain saring, lalu dimasak lagi. Pemasakan dilakukan sampai bau asam cuka hilang.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2.4. Cara Pengujian&lt;br /&gt;2.4.1. Analisis Kualitatif Karbohidrat Kulit Pisang&lt;br /&gt;a. Uji Molish&lt;br /&gt;Ditambahkan 5 tetes reagen Molish ke dalam tabung berisi 2 ml larutan sampel. Kemudian ditambahkan H2SO4 pekat melalui dinding tabung. Amati terbentuknya cincin ungu berarti sampel mengandung karbohidrat.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;b. Uji Benedict&lt;br /&gt;Ditambahkan 8 tetes larutan sampel yang mengandung 5 ml reagen Benedict. Kemudian tabung ditempatkan dalam panci dan didihkan selama 3 menit. Biarkan pada suhu kamar dan diamati terbentuknya endapan merah bata yang menunjukkan adanya gula pereduksi dalam sampel.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2.4.2. Analisis Kuantitatif Kulit Pisang Metode Luff Schoorl&lt;br /&gt;a. Ambil 5 ml sampel setelah disaring dalam Erlenmeyer, ditambahkan 25 ml reagen. Dibuat juga larutan blanko,yaitu 25 ml reagen Luff Schoorl ditambah 25 ml aquades.&lt;br /&gt;b. Kedua larutan didihkan selama 2 menit.&lt;br /&gt;c. Didinginkan cepat-cepat dan ditambahkan 15 ml larutan KI 20% serta ditambahkan 25 ml H2SO4 26,5% melalui dinding Erlenmeyer.&lt;br /&gt;d. Iodium yang dibebaskan dititrasi dengan Na2S2O3 memakai indikator amilum sebanyak 2-3 ml yang ditambahkan menjelang titik akhir titrasi.&lt;br /&gt;e. Hadar gula reduksi dalam sampel ditentukan dari selisih volume titran sampel dan blanko dengan bantuan sampel.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;BAB III&lt;br /&gt;HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3.1. Hasil&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;Sifat fisik nata de banana skin :&lt;br /&gt;1. Warna nata sedikit lebih gelap jika dibandingkan dengan nata de banana.&lt;br /&gt;2. Produk hasil nata de banana paling banyak daripada produk nata dari kulit pisang maupun kulit nanas.&lt;br /&gt;3. Nata de banana dapat ditambah dengan sirup untuk meningkatkan cita rasa dan warna.&lt;br /&gt;4. Penentuan kadar sukrosa dengan metode luff schoorl:&lt;br /&gt;Volume Na2S2O3 0,1 N yang diperlukan untuk :&lt;br /&gt;Tirasi blanko = 22,6 ml&lt;br /&gt;Titrasi sampel = 10,6 ml&lt;br /&gt;Selisih volume  = (22,6-10,6)ml = 12,00 ml&lt;br /&gt;Berdasarkan tabel pada lampiran untuk volume 12 ml Na2S2O3 0,1 N, maka kadar sukrosa sebesar 30,3, ml.&lt;br /&gt;Volume sampel 2ml, sehingga kadar sukrosa( 30,3 mg/ 2 ) sebesar 15,015 mg/ml. Atau dalam 100 ml sampel 1501,5 gr/100 ml = 1,5015mg/100ml % (b/v).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;4.2. Pembahasan&lt;br /&gt;Karbohidrat oleh asam sulfat akan dihidrolisa menjadi monosakarida dan selanjutnya monosakarida mengalami dehidrasi oleh asam sulfat menjadi furfural atau hidroksi metil furfural. Furfural atau hidroksi metil furfural dengan alfa naftol akan berkondensasi membentuk senyawa kompleks yang berwarna ungu. Apabila pemberian asam sulfat pada larutan karbohidrat yang telah diberi alfa naftoh melelui dinding gelas dan secara hati-hati maka warna ungu yang terbentuk berupa cincin pada batas antara larutan karbohidrat dengan asam sulfat.&lt;br /&gt; Penentuan sukrosa ditentukan jumlahnya dengan luff schorl, dari hasil titrasi yang dilakukan diperoleh volume Na2S2O3 0,1 N sebanyak 22,6 ml pada larutan blangko, dan 10,6 ml pada larutan sampel. Sehingga diperoleh selisih diantara keduanya yaitu sebesar 12 ml. Berdasarkan tabel pada lampiran, maka untuk volume 12 ml Na2S2O3 0,1 ml, maka kadar sukrosa sebesar 30,3 ml.&lt;br /&gt; Dengan volume sampel 2 ml, sehingga kadar sukrosa sebesar 15,015 mg. Maka kadar sukrosa dalam sampel diperoleh 1501,5 mg/ 100 ml atau 1,5015 gram/ 100 ml  % (b/v)&lt;br /&gt; Hidrolisa sukrosa akan dihasilkan 2 mol gula reduksi yang berupa fruktosa yang dapat dituliskan sebagai berikut :&lt;br /&gt;C6 H22 O11 + H2 O  C6 H12 O6 + C6 H12 O6&lt;br /&gt;Sukrosa  Fruktoa Glukosa&lt;br /&gt;BM= 342  BM= 180 BM=180&lt;br /&gt;Dalam praktikum ini digunakan kulit pisang sebagai bahan baku pembuatan nata de banana skin. Kulit pisang yang digunakan adalah kulit bagian hanya dalam, hal ini untuk menjaga kualitas nata yang dihasilkan agar lebih baik dan mempunyai kandungan glukosa yang tinggi. Selanjutnya kulit pisang diblander untuk memudahkan praktikan untuk mendapatkan kandungan karbohidrat yang tersimpan dalam kulit pisang.&lt;br /&gt;Pemanasan air perasan kulit pisang bertujuan untuk mensterilkan bahan baku, yang akan difermentasi, sehingga bakteri stater mampu untuk bertumbuh di media air perasan kulit pisang. Sedangkan fungsi penambahan pupuk ZA ialah untuk meningkatkan nutrisi dalam media untuk pertumbuhan bakteri selama fermentasi.&lt;br /&gt;Asam asetat atau asam cuka digunakan untuk menurunkan pH atau meningkatkan keasaman air perasan kulit pisang. Dalam praktikum ini asam asetat yang digunakan adalah asam cuka dapur dengan kadar 80%. Pada dasarnya asam asetat yang baik adalah asam asetat glacial (99,8%). Akan tetapi, asam asetat dengan konsentrasi rendah dapat digunakan, namun untuk mencapai tingkat keasaman yang diinginkan yaitu pH 4,5 – 5,5 dibutuhkan dalam jumlah banyak. Selain asan asetat, asam-asam organik dan anorganik lain bisa digunakan. pH 4,5-5,5 adalah kondisi yang produktif untuk banteri stater berkembang biak dengan baik, sehingga kondisi ini perlu dijaga.&lt;br /&gt;Dari hasil pengamatan fermentasi yang dilakukan selama 2 minggu, pada minggu pertama pembentukan nata kurang begitu cepat, sehingga lapisan nata yang terbentuk sangat tipis. Akan tetapi setelah mengalami fermentasi selama 2 minggu nata de banana yang dihasilkan cukup baik, bahkan memiliki ketebalan dan massa yang besar.&lt;br /&gt;Proses pemasakan produk nata secara berulang ulang bertujuan untuk mematikan bakteri yang masih aktif didalam produk nata, selain itu melarutkan kandungan alkohol yang dihasilkan selama proses fermentasi oleh bakteri.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;BAB IV&lt;br /&gt;KESIMPULAN&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dari hasil percobaan yang telah dilakukan, dapat disimpulkan bahwa :&lt;br /&gt;1. Pemberian asam sulfat pada larutan karbohidrat yang telah diberi alfa naftoh melelui dinding gelas dan secara hati-hati maka warna ungu yang terbentuk berupa cincin pada batas antara larutan karbohidrat dengan asam sulfat.&lt;br /&gt;2. Furfural atau hidroksi metil furfural dengan alfa naftol akan berkondensasi membentuk senyawa kompleks yang berwarna ungu.&lt;br /&gt;3. Dari hasil fermentasi air perasan kulit pisang, diperoleh produk nata de banana skin yang padat dan tebal..&lt;br /&gt;4. Kulit pisang yang selama ini dibuang karena dianggap sebagai limbah, ternyata memiliki nilai guna dan bernilai ekonomis.&lt;br /&gt;5. Berdasarkan hasil pengamatan yang dilakukan, nata dari kulit pisang masih memiliki peluang pasar yang baik karena di pasaran masih jarang dijumpai nata yang berbahan dasar kulit pisang. Pembuatan produk nata berbahan dasar kulit pisang ini tidak memerlukan dana yang terlalu besar, karena bahan dasar yang digunakan mudah untuk didapat dan harganya juga tidak terlalu mahal.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;DAFTAR PUSTAKA&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sulistyomaty, E, 2010, Petunjuk Praktikum Food Technology&lt;br /&gt;http://onlinebuku.com/2009/01/29/pemanfaatan-limbah-dari-tanaman-pisang/&lt;br /&gt;http://karya-ilmiah.um.ac.id/index.php/pkm/article/view/2371&lt;br /&gt;(www.Evimeinar.multiply.com/reviews/item/42)&lt;br /&gt;http://samm171185.blogspot.com/2008/05/panduan-praktikum-pembuatan-nata-de_28.html&lt;br /&gt;http://queenofsheeba.wordpress.com/2009/11/17/luff-schoorl/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-2302225232262087052?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/2302225232262087052/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/pembuatan-nata-dari-limbah-kulit-pisang_03.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/2302225232262087052'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/2302225232262087052'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/pembuatan-nata-dari-limbah-kulit-pisang_03.html' title='PEMBUATAN NATA DARI LIMBAH KULIT PISANG DENGAN PENENTUAN KADAR SUKROSA'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-285794381488220106</id><published>2010-05-03T02:44:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2010-05-03T02:51:22.046-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Food Technology'/><title type='text'>PEMBUATAN NATA DARI LIMBAH KULIT PISANG</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;BAB I&lt;br /&gt;PENDAHULUAN&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.1.  Latar Belakang&lt;br /&gt;Indonesia merupakan bagian dari kawasan Asia Tenggara yang memiliki kekayaan alam bagus. Diantara kekayaan alam tersebut salah satunya adalah tanaman pisang. Tanaman pisang banyak sekali terdapat di kawasan Asia Tenggara, salah satunya di Indonesia. Tanaman pisang tumbuh subur di Indonesia yang memiliki iklim tropis, tapi masyarakat Indonesia pada umumnya masih kurang begitu tahu manfaat tanaman pisang selain sebagai buah untuk dikonsumsi secara maksimal yang ternyata mempunyai potensi nilai ekonomis yang tinggi. Mereka tidak tahu bahwa ternyata kulit pisang yang selama ini mereka buang sebagai limbah, ternyata dapat bernilai guna.&lt;br /&gt;Untuk memanfaatkan kulit pisang menjadi bernilai guna, maka dibutuhkan keahlian dan strategi untuk mensosialisasikan produk yang akan dihasilkan agar diterima di masyarakat. Hal itulah yang mendorong munculnya minuman nata berbahan dasar kulit pisang saat ini.&lt;br /&gt;Nata adalah serat yang berbentuk seperti gel yang dibuat dengan memanfaatkan kerja bakteri Acetobacter xylinum. Asam cuka dan pupuk ZA berfungsi untuk media hidup bagi bakteri Acetobacter xylinum. Bakteri ini membutuhkan nitrogen dari pupuk ZA dan keasaman dari cuka. Acetobacter xylinum inilah yang nanti akan membentuk nata. Bakteri ini termasuk genus Acetobacter yang memiliki sifat gram negatif, aerob dan berbentuk batang pendek atau kokus.&lt;br /&gt;Untuk membuat nata, dapat digunakan bahan-bahan yang lain seperti air kelapa atau jus buah-buahan yang mengandung gula. Dalam media cair tersebut bakteri akan tumbuh dan menghasilkan suatu lapisan yang dikenal dengan “nata”.&lt;br /&gt;Metode yang dilakukan adalah mengadakan kerjasama dengan sektor usaha kecil yang memanfaatkan buah pisang, misalnya : usaha gorengan, pabrik roti isi pisang, pabrik kripik pisang, dan lain-lain. Setelah kulit pisang diperoleh, lalu kulit pisang diolah menjadi nata.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.2. Dasar teori&lt;br /&gt;Pembuatan nata merupakan salah satu cara yang bisa dilakukan untuk mengatasi masalah limbah rumah tangga (air kelapa, kulit pisang, kulit nanas, dll) dengan bantuan bakeri Acetobakter xylinum. Pembuatan nata de banana skin dimulai dengan mendidihkan ekstrak kulit pisang dengan ditambahkan cuka, gula dan bahan tambahan lainya, kemudian disimpan dalam wadah untuk diinokulasi. Dalam penginokulasian harus pada suhu kamar. Kemudian disimpan selama kurang lebih 10-15 hari atau sampai adanya lembaran nata.&lt;br /&gt;Bibit nata adalah bakteri Acotobacter xylinum yang akan dapat membentuk serat nata jika ditumbuhkan dalam air perasan kulit pisang yang sudah diperkaya dengan karbon dan nitrogen melalui proses yang terkontrol. Dalam kondisi demikian, bakteri tersebut akan menghasilkan enzim yang dapat menyusun zat gula menjadi ribuan rantai serat atau selulosa. Dari jutaan renik yang tumbuh pada air kelapa tersebut, akan dihasilkan jutaan lembar benang-benang selulosa yang akhirnya nampak padat berwarna putih hingga transparan, yang disebut sebagai nata. Acetobacter Xylinum dapat tumbuh pada pH 3,5 – 7,5, namun akan tumbuh optimal bila pH nya 4,3, sedangkan suhu ideal bagi pertumbuhan bakteri Acetobacter Xylinum pada suhu 28°– 31°C. Bakteri ini sangat memerlukan oksigen.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.3. Profil bahan&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pisang adalah nama umum yang diberikan pada tumbuhan terna raksasa berdaun besar memanjang dari suku Musaceae. Beberapa jenisnya (Musa acuminata, M. balbisiana, dan M. ×paradisiaca) menghasilkan buah konsumsi yang dinamakan sama. Buah ini tersusun dalam tandan dengan kelompok-kelompok tersusun menjari, yang disebut sisir. Hampir semua buah pisang memiliki kulit berwarna kuning ketika matang, meskipun ada beberapa yang berwarna jingga, merah, ungu, atau bahkan hampir hitam. Buah pisang sebagai bahan pangan merupakan sumber energi (karbohidrat) dan mineral, terutama kalium.&lt;br /&gt;Nilai energi pisang sekitar 136 kalori untuk setiap 100 gram, yang secara keseluruhan berasal dari karbohidrat. Nilai energi pisang dua kali lipat lebih tinggi daripada apel. Apel dengan berat sama (100 gram) hanya mengandung 54 kalori. Karbohidrat pisang menyediakan energi sedikit lebih lambat dibandingkan dengan gula pasir dan sirup, tetapi lebih cepat dari nasi, biskuit, dan sejenis roti. Oleh sebab itu, banyak atlet saat jeda atau istirahat mengonsumsi pisang sebagai cadangan energi.&lt;br /&gt;Kandungan energi pisang merupakan energi instan, yang mudah tersedia dalam waktu singkat, sehingga bermanfaat dalam menyediakan kebutuhan kalori sesaat. Karbohidrat pisang merupakan karbohidrat kompleks tingkat sedang dan tersedia secara bertahap, sehingga dapat menyediakan energi dalam waktu tidak terlalu cepat. Karbohidrat pisang merupakan cadangan energi yang sangat baik digunakan dan dapat secara cepat tersedia bagi tubuh.&lt;br /&gt;Gula pisang merupakan gula buah, yaitu terdiri dari fruktosa yang mempunyai indek glikemik lebih rendah dibandingkan dengan glukosa, sehingga cukup baik sebagai penyimpan energi karena sedikit lebih lambat dimetabolisme. Sehabis bekerja keras atau berpikir, selalu timbul rasa kantuk. Keadaan ini merupakan tanda-tanda otak kekurangan energi, sehingga aktivitas secara biologis juga menurun.&lt;br /&gt;Glukosa darah terutama didapat dari asupan makanan sumber karbohidrat. Pisang adalah alternatif terbaik untuk menyediakan energi di saat-saat istirahat atau jeda, pada waktu otak sangat membutuhkan energi yang cepat tersedia untuk aktivitas biologis.&lt;br /&gt;Namun, kandungan protein dan lemak pisang ternyata kurang bagus dan sangat rendah, yaitu hanya 2,3 persen dan 0,13 persen. Meski demikian, kandungan lemak dan protein pisang masih lebih tinggi dari apel, yang hanya 0,3 persen. Karena itu, tidak perlu takut kegemukan walau mengonsumsi pisang dalam jumlah banyak.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;BAB II&lt;br /&gt;LANGKAH KERJA&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2.1. Bahan Yang Digunakan :&lt;br /&gt;1. Kulit pisang kepok&lt;br /&gt;2. Gula pasir&lt;br /&gt;3. Bakteri Acetobacter xylinum&lt;br /&gt;4. Pupuk ZA&lt;br /&gt;5. Asam cuka&lt;br /&gt;6. Garam Inggris&lt;br /&gt;7. Air&lt;br /&gt;8. Sirup&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2.2. Alat Yang Digunakan :&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1. Blender&lt;br /&gt;2. Timbangan&lt;br /&gt;3. Gelas ukur&lt;br /&gt;4. Cetakan&lt;br /&gt;5. Kain saring&lt;br /&gt;6. Sendok&lt;br /&gt;7. Pisau&lt;br /&gt;8. Panci&lt;br /&gt;9. Kompor&lt;br /&gt;10. Pengaduk&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2.3. Langkah – langkah Pembuatan :&lt;br /&gt;1. Daging buah yang menempel pada kulit pisang bagian dalam dikerok.&lt;br /&gt;2. Ditimbang sebanyak 400 gr.&lt;br /&gt;3. Ditambahkan air dengan perbandingan 1 : 2, lalu diblender hingga halus.&lt;br /&gt;4. Rebus air sebanyak 800 ml. 600 ml untuk pencampuran nata, sedangkan sisanya untuk mensterilkan botol kaca dan toples.&lt;br /&gt;5. Disaring dengan kain saring hingga diperoleh filtrat (cairan hasil penyaringan).&lt;br /&gt;6. Masukkan ke dalam panci lalu panaskan di atas kompor. Setelah mendidih, tambahkan gula pasir 10 % b/v, asam cuka 0,5 %v/v (bila yang digunakan asam cuka di pasaran 4-5 % v/v), pupuk ZA 0,125% b/v ( 1 pucuk sendok teh), dan garam Inggris 0,01 % b/v. Aduk sampai larut lalu angkat.&lt;br /&gt;7. Tuangkan ke dalam cetakan yang telah disterilkan (dicuci dengan air panas), dengan ketinggian cairan adonan lebih kurang 2-3 cm di setiap cetakan. Segera tutup dengan kertas (Koran, majalah, kertas merang).&lt;br /&gt;Catatan : cetakan ditutup dengan kertas koran supaya udara tetap bisa masuk melalui pori-pori kertas.&lt;br /&gt;8. Diamkan sampai dingin (sekitar 1 jam), baru kemudian ditambahkan starter (bibit bakteri Acetobacter xylinum sebanyak 10% v/v.&lt;br /&gt;Catatan :&lt;br /&gt;- Sebelum memasukkan bakteri, adonan harus benar-benar dingin, sebab kalau masih panas bakteri akan mati.&lt;br /&gt;- Cetakan harus diletakkan di tempat yang aman, jauh dari gangguan. Goyangan atau pemindahan cetakan menyebabkan serat nata gagal terbentuk karena bakteri ini bekerja menganyam serat dari atas ke bawah, sehingga bila digoyang menyebabkan bakteri jatuh dan tidak mau bekerja lagi.&lt;br /&gt;9. Fermentasi selama 10 hari.&lt;br /&gt;10. Setelah 10 hari,serta nata dapat dipanen. Angkat serat nata dari cetakan dan cuci, lalu peras dengan kain saring (agar tidak licin).&lt;br /&gt;11. Iris dengan ukuran sesuai selera, lalu masak dengan air sampai mendidih.&lt;br /&gt;12. Tiriskan dan peras lagi dengan kain saring, lalu dimasak lagi. Pemasakan dilakukan sampai bau asam cuka hilang.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;BAB III&lt;br /&gt;HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN&lt;br /&gt;3.1. Hasil&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;Sifat fisik nata de banana skin :&lt;br /&gt;1. Warna nata sedikit lebih gelap jika dibandingkan dengan nata de coco.&lt;br /&gt;2. Produk hasil nata de banana paling banyak daripada produk nata dari air kelapa maupun kulit nanas.&lt;br /&gt;3. Nata de banana dapat ditambah dengan sirup untuk meningkatkan cita rasa dan warna.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3.2. Pembahasan&lt;br /&gt;Dalam praktikum ini digunakan kulit pisang sebagai bahan baku pembuatan nata de banana skin. Kulit pisang yang digunakan adalah kulit bagian hanya dalam, hal ini untuk menjaga kualitas nata yang dihasilkan agar lebih baik dan mempunyai kandungan glukosa yang tinggi. Selanjutnya kulit pisang diblander untuk memudahkan praktikan untuk mendapatkan kandungan karbohidrat yang tersimpan dalam kulit pisang.&lt;br /&gt;Pemanasan air perasan kulit pisang bertujuan untuk mensterilkan bahan baku, yang akan difermentasi, sehingga bakteri stater mampu untuk bertumbuh di media air perasan kulit pisang. Sedangkan fungsi penambahan pupuk ZA ialah untuk meningkatkan nutrisi dalam media untuk pertumbuhan bakteri selama fermentasi.&lt;br /&gt;Asam asetat atau asam cuka digunakan untuk menurunkan pH atau meningkatkan keasaman air perasan kulit pisang. Dalam praktikum ini asam asetat yang digunakan adalah asam cuka dapur dengan kadar 80%. Pada dasarnya asam asetat yang baik adalah asam asetat glacial (99,8%). Akan tetapi, asam asetat dengan konsentrasi rendah dapat digunakan, namun untuk mencapai tingkat keasaman yang diinginkan yaitu pH 4,5 – 5,5 dibutuhkan dalam jumlah banyak. Selain asan asetat, asam-asam organik dan anorganik lain bisa digunakan. pH 4,5-5,5 adalah kondisi yang produktif untuk banteri stater berkembang biak dengan baik, sehingga kondisi ini perlu dijaga.&lt;br /&gt;Dari hasil pengamatan fermentasi yang dilakukan selama 2 minggu, pada minggu pertama pembentukan nata kurang begitu cepat, sehingga lapisan nata yang terbentuk sangat tipis. Akan tetapi setelah mengalami fermentasi selama 2 minggu nata de banana yang dihasilkan cukup baik, bahkan memiliki ketebalan dan massa yang besar.&lt;br /&gt;Proses pemasakan produk nata secara berulang ulang bertujuan untuk mematikan bakteri yang masih aktif didalam produk nata, selain itu melarutkan kandungan alkohol yang dihasilkan selama proses fermentasi oleh bakteri.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;BAB IV&lt;br /&gt;KESIMPULAN&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dari hasil percobaan yang telah dilakukan, dapat disimpulkan bahwa :&lt;br /&gt;1. Dari hasil fermentasi air perasan kulit pisang, diperoleh produk nata de banana skin yang padat dan tebal..&lt;br /&gt;2. Kulit pisang yang selama ini dibuang karena dianggap sebagai limbah, ternyata memiliki nilai guna dan bernilai ekonomis.&lt;br /&gt;3. Berdasarkan hasil pengamatan yang dilakukan, nata dari kulit pisang masih memiliki peluang pasar yang baik karena di pasaran masih jarang dijumpai nata yang berbahan dasar kulit pisang. Pembuatan produk nata berbahan dasar kulit pisang ini tidak memerlukan dana yang terlalu besar, karena bahan dasar yang digunakan mudah untuk didapat dan harganya juga tidak terlalu mahal.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;DAFTAR PUSTAKA&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sulistyomaty, E, 2010, Petunjuk Praktikum Food Technology&lt;br /&gt;http://onlinebuku.com/2009/01/29/pemanfaatan-limbah-dari-tanaman-pisang/&lt;br /&gt;http://karya-ilmiah.um.ac.id/index.php/pkm/article/view/2371&lt;br /&gt;(www.Evimeinar.multiply.com/reviews/item/42)&lt;br /&gt;http://samm171185.blogspot.com/2008/05/panduan-praktikum-pembuatan-nata-de_28.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-285794381488220106?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/285794381488220106/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/pembuatan-nata-dari-limbah-kulit-pisang.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/285794381488220106'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/285794381488220106'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/05/pembuatan-nata-dari-limbah-kulit-pisang.html' title='PEMBUATAN NATA DARI LIMBAH KULIT PISANG'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-3900344381459006835</id><published>2010-03-12T02:56:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2010-03-12T03:03:28.797-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Pengecoran Logam'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Casting Industry'/><title type='text'>Keuntungan Pengecoran dengan Metode Lost Foam Casting</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Ada beberapa keuntungan pengecoran dengan metode Lost Foam Casting (ini menurut dosen kita tercinta lho, Pak Dr. Suyitno, S.T. M.Sc.) antara lain sebagai berikut :&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;ol style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;li&gt;Fleksibel dalam pembuatan pola, karena pola dibuat dari styrofoam sehingga untuk merubah pola dapat dilakukan dengan mudah dan cepat&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Ketelitian dimensinya tinggi, karena pola telah dibentuk sesuai dengan ukuran benda yang akan dihasilkan&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Adanya pengurangan core, metode ini memungkinkan bentuk model yang lebih kompleks&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Tidak dibutuhkan adanya cupe dan drag seperti digunakan pada pengecoran pasir cetak tradisional&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Ramah lingkungan, pasir cetak dapat digunakan berulang-ulang.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Nah tunggu apalagi catat sekarang siapa tahu besok keluar di ujian. Toh yang penting kalau dalam pengecoran logam tuh prakteknya, otomatis teori kudu di luar kepala.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-3900344381459006835?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/3900344381459006835/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/03/keuntungan-pengecoran-dengan-metode.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/3900344381459006835'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/3900344381459006835'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/03/keuntungan-pengecoran-dengan-metode.html' title='Keuntungan Pengecoran dengan Metode Lost Foam Casting'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-2459163441712443586</id><published>2010-03-12T02:29:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2010-03-12T02:36:17.021-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Pengecoran Logam'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Casting Industry'/><title type='text'>Sand Casting and Processing of Sand Casting</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A sand casting or a sand molded casting is a cast part produced by forming a mold from a sand mixture and then pouring molten liquid metal into the cavity in the mold. The mold is then cooled until the metal has solidified. In the last stage, the casting is separated from the mold. There are six steps in this process:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li&gt;   Place a pattern in sand to create a mold.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;   Incorporate a gating system.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;   Remove the pattern.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;   Fill the mold cavity with molten metal.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;   Allow the metal to cool.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;   Break away the sand mold and remove the casting.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;br /&gt;There are two main types of sand used for molding. Green sand is a mixture of silica sand, clay, moisture and other additives. The air set method uses dry sand bonded to materials other than clay, using a fast curing adhesive. The latter may also be referred to as no bake mold casting. When these are used, they are collectively called "air set" sand castings to distinguish these from "green sand" castings. Two types of molding sand are natural bonded (bank sand) and synthetic (lake sand), which is generally preferred due to its more consistent composition.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;With both methods, the sand mixture is packed around a master pattern forming a mold cavity. If necessary, a temporary plug is placed to form a channel for pouring the fluid to be cast. Air-set molds often form a two-part mold having a top and bottom, termed cope and drag. The sand mixture is tamped down as it is added, and the final mold assembly is sometimes vibrated to compact the sand and fill any unwanted voids in the mold. Then the pattern is removed with the channel plug, leaving the mold cavity. The casting liquid (typically molten metal) is then poured into the mold cavity. After the metal has solidified and cooled, the casting is separated from the sand mold. There is typically no mold release agent, and the mold is generally destroyed in the removal process.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The accuracy of the casting is limited by the type of sand and the molding process. Sand castings made from coarse green sand impart a rough texture on the surface of the casting, and this makes them easy to identify. Air-set molds can produce castings with much smoother surfaces. Surfaces can also be ground and polished, for example when making a large bell. After molding, the casting is covered in a residue of oxides, silicates and other compounds. This residue can be removed by various means, such as grinding, or shot blasting.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;During casting, some of the components of the sand mixture are lost in the thermal casting process. Green sand can be reused after adjusting its composition to replenish the lost moisture and additives. The pattern itself can be reused indefinitely to produce new sand molds. The sand molding process has been used for many centuries to produce castings manually. Since 1950, partially-automated casting processes have been developed for production lines.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;source : &lt;a href="http://wikipedia.org"&gt;http://wikipedia.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-2459163441712443586?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/2459163441712443586/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/03/sand-casting-and-processing-of-sand.html#comment-form' title='1 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/2459163441712443586'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/2459163441712443586'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/03/sand-casting-and-processing-of-sand.html' title='Sand Casting and Processing of Sand Casting'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>1</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-7987292356383218420</id><published>2010-03-12T02:26:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2010-03-12T02:27:55.418-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Pengecoran Logam'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Casting Industry'/><title type='text'>Advantages and disadvantages of Lost Foam Casting</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;This casting process is advantageous for very complex castings that would regularly require cores. It is also dimensionally accurate, maintains an excellent surface finish, requires no draft, and has no parting lines so no flash is formed. As compared to investment casting, it is cheaper because it is a simpler process and the foam is cheaper than the wax. Risers are not usually required due to the nature of the process; because the molten metal vaporizes the foam the first metal into the mold cools more quickly than the rest, which results in natural directional solidification.Foam is easy to manipulate, carve and glue, due to its unique properties. The flexibility of LFC often allows for consolidating the parts into one integral component; other forming processes would require the production of one or more parts to be assembled.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The two main disadvantages are that pattern costs can be high for low volume applications and the patterns are easily damaged or distorted due to their low strength. If a die is used to create the patterns there is a large initial cost.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;source : http://wikipedia.org&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-7987292356383218420?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/7987292356383218420/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/03/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-lost.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/7987292356383218420'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/7987292356383218420'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/03/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-lost.html' title='Advantages and disadvantages of Lost Foam Casting'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-3926005236805819361</id><published>2010-03-12T02:23:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2010-03-12T02:26:07.082-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Pengecoran Logam'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Casting Industry'/><title type='text'>Processing of Lost Foam Casting</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Lost-foam casting (LFC)&lt;/span&gt; is a type of evaporative-pattern casting process that is similar to investment casting except foam is used for the pattern instead of wax. This process takes advantage of the low boiling point of foam to simplify the investment casting process by removing the need to melt the wax out of the mold.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;Processing of Lost Foam Casting&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;First, a pattern is made from polystyrene foam, which can be done many different ways. For small volume runs the pattern can be hand cut or machined from a solid block of foam; if the geometry is simple enough it can even be cut using a hot-wire foam cutter. If the volume is large, then the pattern can be mass-produced by a process similar to injection molding. Pre-expanded beads of polystyrene are injected into a preheated aluminum mold at low pressure. Steam is then applied to the polystyrene which causes it to expand more to fill the die. The final pattern is approximately 97.5% air and 2.5% polystyrene. Once the pattern is made pre-made pouring basins, runners, and risers can be hot glued to form the final pattern.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Next, the foam cluster is coated with ceramic investment, also known as the refractory coating, via dipping, brushing, spraying or flow coating. This coating creates a barrier between the smooth foam surface and the coarse sand surface. Secondly it controls permeability, which allows the gas created by the vaporized foam pattern to escape through the coating and into the sand. Controlling permeability is a crucial step to avoid sand erosion. Finally, it forms a barrier so that molten metal does not penetrate or cause sand erosion during pouring. After the coating dries, the cluster is placed into a flask and backed up with un-bonded sand. The sand is then compacted using a vibration table. Once compacted, the mold is ready to be poured. Automatic pouring is commonly used in LFC, as the pouring process is significantly more critical than in conventional foundry practice.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;sumber : http://wikipedia.org&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-3926005236805819361?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/3926005236805819361/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/03/processing-of-lost-foam-casting.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/3926005236805819361'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/3926005236805819361'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/03/processing-of-lost-foam-casting.html' title='Processing of Lost Foam Casting'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-39978844872487666</id><published>2010-03-12T02:04:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2010-03-12T02:22:53.162-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Pengecoran Logam'/><title type='text'>Pasir Cetak</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Bingun juga nih mo cari materi buat ujian besok pagi, akhirnya aku search di google, yang penting cocok dengan materi kuliah siapa tahu besok keluar. Ujian juga tinggal satu doank, Nah ini beberapa materi yang udah aku dapat :&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Syarat Umum Pasir Pengecoran :&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li&gt;REFRACTORINESS (Tahan suhu tinggi)&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;COHESIVENESS (Kemudahan dibentuk)&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;PERMEABILITY (Mampu dilewati udara/gas)&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;COLLAPSIBILITY (Memberi tempat utk perubahan&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;bentuk)dalam kasus distorsi&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Syarat Pasir Pengecoran&lt;br /&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li&gt;Kuat&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Permeabilitas yang baik&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Flowabilitas yang baik&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Mempunyai distribusi pasir yang cocok&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Sifat adhesive yang baik&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Sifat kohesive yang baik&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Sifat kollapsibility&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Koefesien muai rendah&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Bench life&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;br /&gt;B. Material Pasir&lt;br /&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Pasir Silika&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Pasir Chromit&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Pasir Zircon&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1. Pasir Silika&lt;br /&gt;Deskripsi :&lt;br /&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Merupakan pasir sintetis atau pasir buatan&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Kadar SiO2 95%&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Pasir berkualitas tinggi dengan sedikit impuritis&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Pasir silika Merupakan pasir yang paling banyak digunakan karena jumlahnya yang sangat banyak dan juga harga yang murah&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2. Pasir Chromit&lt;br /&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Formula: Fe2O4·Cr2O4&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Pasir berkualitas tinggi dengan sedikit impuritis&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Ekspansi termal rendah&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Konduktivitas termal tinggi&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Refraktori bagus&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3. Pasir Zirkon&lt;br /&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Formula: ZrO2.SiO2&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Pasir zirkon ada yang tidak berwarna dan ada yang berwarna. Warna yang dimiliki zirkon biasanya cokelat atau merah kekuning-kuningan.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Sumber dari Zirkonium murni menunjukan penyerapan neutron yang rendah, kekuatan tinggi pada temperatur yang tinggi, dan tahan terhadap korosi kimia, selain untuk&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;cetakan pasir dapat juga digunakan untuk reaktor nuklir dan radiometric dating.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-39978844872487666?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/39978844872487666/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/03/pasir-cetak.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/39978844872487666'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/39978844872487666'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/03/pasir-cetak.html' title='Pasir Cetak'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-3047790803708875970</id><published>2010-03-11T08:09:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2010-03-11T08:10:46.993-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Heat Transfer'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Food Engineering'/><title type='text'>Definition of Heat Transfer</title><content type='html'>Do you know about definition of Heat Transfer ? Heat transfer is the transition of thermal energy from a hotter mass to a cooler mass. When an object is at a different temperature than its surroundings or another object, transfer of thermal energy, also known as heat transfer, or heat exchange, occurs in such a way that the body and the surroundings reach thermal equilibrium; this means that they are at the same temperature. Heat transfer always occurs from a higher-temperature object to a cooler-temperature one as described by the second law of thermodynamics or the Clausius statement. Where there is a temperature difference between objects in proximity, heat transfer between them can never be stopped; it can only be slowed. Source : www.wikipedia.org&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-3047790803708875970?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/3047790803708875970/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/03/definition-of-heat-transfer.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/3047790803708875970'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/3047790803708875970'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/03/definition-of-heat-transfer.html' title='Definition of Heat Transfer'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-6006556397657390333</id><published>2010-03-11T08:03:00.001-08:00</published><updated>2010-03-11T08:07:26.270-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Heat Transfer'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Food Engineering'/><title type='text'>Heat Transfer Mecanism</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Heat transfer mechanisms can be grouped into 3 broad categories:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Conduction:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Regions with greater molecular kinetic energy will pass their thermal energy to regions with less molecular energy through direct molecular collisions, a process known as conduction. In metals, a significant portion of the transported thermal energy is also carried by conduction-band electrons.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Convection:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;When heat conducts into a static fluid it leads to a local volumetric expansion. As a result of gravity-induced pressure gradients, the expanded fluid parcel becomes buoyant and displaces, thereby transporting heat by fluid motion (i.e. convection) in addition to conduction. Such heat-induced fluid motion in initially static fluids is known as free convection.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Radiation:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;All materials radiate thermal energy in amounts determined by their temperature, where the energy is carried by photons of light in the infrared and visible portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. When temperatures are uniform, the radiative flux between objects is in equilibrium and no net thermal energy is exchanged. The balance is upset when temperatures are not uniform, and thermal energy is transported from surfaces of higher to surfaces of lower temperature. &lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;source : &lt;a href="www.efunda.com"&gt;www.efunda.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-6006556397657390333?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/6006556397657390333/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/03/heat-transfer-mecanism.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/6006556397657390333'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/6006556397657390333'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/03/heat-transfer-mecanism.html' title='Heat Transfer Mecanism'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-4913130766354871045</id><published>2010-03-11T07:59:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2010-03-11T08:03:33.204-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Heat Transfer'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Food Engineering'/><title type='text'>Basics of Heat Transfer</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Do you know about Heat Transfer ? Heat Transfer in food engineering proses is very important. In the simplest of terms, the discipline of heat transfer is concerned with only two things: temperature, and the flow of heat. Temperature represents the amount of thermal energy available, whereas heat flow represents the movement of thermal energy from place to place.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;On a microscopic scale, thermal energy is related to the kinetic energy of molecules. The greater a material's temperature, the greater the thermal agitation of its constituent molecules (manifested both in linear motion and vibrational modes). It is natural for regions containing greater molecular kinetic energy to pass this energy to regions with less kinetic energy.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Several material properties serve to modulate the heat tranfered between two regions at differing temperatures. Examples include thermal conductivities, specific heats, material densities, fluid velocities, fluid viscosities, surface emissivities, and more. Taken together, these properties serve to make the solution of many heat transfer problems an involved process. source : www.efunda.com&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-4913130766354871045?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/4913130766354871045/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/03/basics-of-heat-transfer.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/4913130766354871045'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/4913130766354871045'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/03/basics-of-heat-transfer.html' title='Basics of Heat Transfer'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-1989732717167116714</id><published>2010-01-24T17:50:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2010-01-24T18:08:19.513-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='engineering system'/><title type='text'>Bunnies as BTU? Some Swedes have chased biofuel down the rabbit hole</title><content type='html'>We've been pleased to get into biomass coverage this year, and more is on the way in December. One of the things about heating with biomass is that it's not right for every locale; often, proximity to a locally abundant fuel source is required. Now, one area in central Sweden has turned to a unique and somewhat controversial source: bunnies. (Yes, Googling "Sweden bunnies" will yield a few full articles about this.)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In a nutshell: Stockholm has a rabbit problem, as the result of too many pet rabbits released (or escaped) into the wild and subsequently breeding, well, like rabbits. The overflow of this non-native species has posed various problems for a number of the city's green spaces. The local government had already resorted to a sanctioned annual thinning of the population with the help of animal control and hunters; this reportedly reduces the bunny count by the thousands (yes, thousands).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Eventually, someone figured out a process (with the help of EU biofuel research funding) wherein the dead rabbits could be frozen and then used as fuel at a nearby plant for residential heating. It's a win/ win, right?&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Not according to a local journalist, who provides my favorite quote in Helena Merriman's piece for BBC News:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"'In the town where they are burning them, the reaction of the residents is quite relaxed,' Mr. Savage told the BBC World Service. 'But in Stockholm, there's the big city attitude of the rabbits being cute.'"&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;I think some communities in America might have a problem with it, too. But it does get pretty chilly in Sweden, and from the sound of things, the rabbits' destiny is already a fait accompli thanks to the city's irresponsible pet owners. So, how would you feel about turning bunnies into BTUs?&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;BUGS ON A PLANE&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;No, I'm not talking about the entomological sequel to Snakes On A Plane. This headline refers to the kind of illnesses you can catch while cooped up in a "tin box," five miles above the ground, with a couple hundred other people for an hour or three of close-quarters travel.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Specifically, I'm referring to a recent article on the London Times website that reported on a "revolutionary new air filter" developed by a small English company named Quest International in conjunction with BAE Systems (an aerospace company).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Robert Beverly "Bunnies as BTU? Some Swedes have chased biofuel down the rabbit hole". Engineered Systems. FindArticles.com. 24 Jan, 2010. &lt;a href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BPR/is_11_26/ai_n45233627/"&gt;http://findarticles.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;   &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-1989732717167116714?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/1989732717167116714/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/bunnies-as-btu-some-swedes-have-chased.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/1989732717167116714'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/1989732717167116714'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/bunnies-as-btu-some-swedes-have-chased.html' title='Bunnies as BTU? Some Swedes have chased biofuel down the rabbit hole'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-917956258047581467</id><published>2010-01-18T22:18:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2010-01-18T22:21:10.589-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Software'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='SMS'/><title type='text'>Teknology SMS untuk Kemudahan Pekerjaan Kita</title><content type='html'>&lt;p style="text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;img src="http://img245.imageshack.us/img245/9549/softwaresms2010mysmscen.jpg" alt="Download Gratis Software SMS 2010" width="417" height="170" /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;li&gt;Anda mempunyai Bisnis / komunitas tertentu?&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;li&gt;Anda sedang mencari cara promosi yang lebih hemat namun lebih efektif?&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;li&gt;Ingin informasi Bisnis/Komunitas Anda bisa diakses lebih luas, lebih cepat, lebih mudah dan lebih murah oleh pelanggan/member Anda?&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;li&gt;Ingin mempunyai mesin penjawab SMS otomatis? Yang mampu menjawab setiap SMS masuk dengan jawaban yang tepat?&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;li&gt;Anda ingin membuat pelanggan/member Anda tetap setia dan semakin Loyal?&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;li&gt;Sedang mencari cara agar produk atau jasa Anda bisa dipesan melalui SMS (secara otomatis dan mudah)?&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;li&gt;Ingin melakukan jajak pendapat melalui SMS dengan biaya hemat?&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;li&gt;Ingin melakukan Quick Count via SMS?&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;li&gt;Ingin mempunyai layanan SMS konten khusus member Anda?&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;li&gt;Pendaftaran member via SMS?&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Jika salah satu alasan diatas cocok dengan permasalahan Anda, mysmscenter adalah solusinya&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;img src="http://www.freeimagehosting.net/uploads/5ae8852f80.png" alt="Download Gratis Software SMS 2010" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p&gt;Mysmscenter adalah Software desktop manajemen SMS via PC/Laptop. Bisa digunakan untuk berbagai keperluan mulai dari bisnis, sekolah, LBB, organisasi/komunitas, kampanye Parpol, sampai dengan jajak pendapat via SMS.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="color: #339966;"&gt;Bagi Anda yang ingin menerapkan teknologi SMS pada bidang usaha Anda, dapatkan informasi lengkapnya gratis di HP Anda. Caranya:&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span style="color: #339966;"&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="color: #339966;"&gt;Ketik : &lt;strong&gt;MSC125{spasi}NAMA&amp;nbsp;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;em&gt; &lt;/em&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span style="color: #339966;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Kirim ke &lt;strong&gt;0888 3799 165&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="color: #339966;"&gt;Dalam 1x24 jam salah satu staf kami akan menelepon Anda untuk memberikan pelayanan secara langsung.&lt;/span&gt; &lt;strong&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: 12pt;"&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: 12pt;"&gt;Kelebihan Mysmscenter&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;li&gt;Biaya SMS normal sesuai operator GSM yang digunakan (sangat murah)&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;li&gt;Teknologi SMS yang Fleksibel, bisa digunakan untuk berbagai macam keperluan (silahkan konsultasikan dengan tim kami)&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;li&gt;Tidak butuh koneksi internet. Sangat hemat, karena biaya operasional yang Anda tanggung hanya biaya SMS.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;li&gt;Software bisa didownload dan dicoba Gratis sebelum Anda membeli (jangan beli kucing dalam karung)&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;li&gt;Teknologi yang terus dikembangkan dan menerima Fitur tambahan Custom sesuai permintaan Anda.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: 12pt;"&gt;Beberapa Fitur pada software ini adalah:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;li&gt;SMS Order Produk: memungkinkan member Anda untuk melakukan pemesanan produk via SMS dengan sistem deposit. Setiap pemesanan produk akan memotong saldo deposit member tsb.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;li&gt;SMS info sistem CS: pelanggan maupun calon pelanggan Anda bisa mengakses informasi tentang bisnis Anda melalui ponsel. Informasi apapun bisa Anda setting. termasuk stok produk, harga member, harga non member, info diskon, SMS Hikmah, Info absensi SIswa, dll (untuk keperluan apapun)&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;li&gt;SMS Jajak Pendapat: Quick Count, Polling, Voting, Quik Report (lengkap beserta Grafik/Chart dan prosentase pemilih)&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;li&gt;SMS Konten: Anda bisa membebankan tarif SMS sesuai keinginan Anda kepada member yang mengakses SMS info. Tarif langsung dipotongkan pada Saldo member.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;li&gt;SMS Auto Forwarder: Admin Kirim SMS melalui HP pribadinya dan langsung di sebar ke seluruh member dalam suatu Grup tertentu.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;li&gt;Dan banyak lagi Fitur yang tidak cukup untuk dituliskan di sini.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;img alt="call_me_software_sms" src="http://img40.imageshack.us/img40/8165/callmemysmscenter.png" width="417" height="67" /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="color: #008000;"&gt;Bagi Anda yang ingin menerapkan teknologi SMS pada bidang usaha Anda, dapatkan informasi lengkapnya gratis di HP Anda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="color: #008000;"&gt;Ketik : &lt;/span&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span style="color: #008000;"&gt;MSC125{spasi}NAMA&lt;/span&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="color: #008000;"&gt;Kirim ke &lt;strong&gt;0888 3799 165&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="color: #008000;"&gt;Dalam 1x24 jam salah satu staf kami akan menelepon Anda untuk memberikan pelayanan secara langsung.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://www.freeimagehosting.net"&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;img src="http://www.freeimagehosting.net/uploads/5afc9ff645.png" alt="Download Gratis Software SMS 2010" width="417" height="210" /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: 12pt;"&gt;&lt;strong&gt;KUPON DISKON 10%: &lt;span style="color: #ff0000;"&gt;MSC12581578557373&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;Simpan dan gunakan kupon diskon pada saat pembelian software dan dapatkan potongan harga 10% dari harga software. Kupon diskon berlaku selamanya.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a target="_blank" title="Download dan info lengkap software SMS Mysmscenter" href="http://www.mysmscenter.com"&gt;&lt;img src="http://img682.imageshack.us/img682/3619/downloadfreesoftwaresms.png" border="0" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-917956258047581467?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/917956258047581467/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/teknolgy-sms-untuk-kemudahan-pekerjaan.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/917956258047581467'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/917956258047581467'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/teknolgy-sms-untuk-kemudahan-pekerjaan.html' title='Teknology SMS untuk Kemudahan Pekerjaan Kita'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-4543825000471374841</id><published>2010-01-17T22:01:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2010-01-17T22:06:03.591-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Vegetable Oil'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='biodiesel'/><title type='text'>Vegetable fats and oils</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S1P6Q2BVRdI/AAAAAAAAAOk/xpIF5nm39r4/s1600-h/145px-Olive_oil_from_Oneglia.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 145px; height: 197px;" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S1P6Q2BVRdI/AAAAAAAAAOk/xpIF5nm39r4/s200/145px-Olive_oil_from_Oneglia.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5427957143197533650" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Vegetable fats and oils are lipid materials derived from plants. Physically, oils are liquid at room temperature, and fats are solid. Chemically, both fats and oils are composed of triglycerides, as contrasted with waxes which lack glycerin in their structure. Although many different parts of plants may yield oil,[1] in commercial practice, oil is extracted primarily from seeds.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The melting temperature distinction between oils and fats is imprecise, since definitions of room temperature vary, and typically natural oils have a melting range instead of a single melting point.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Vegetable fats and oils may be edible or inedible. Examples of inedible vegetable fats and oils include processed linseed oil, tung oil, and castor oil used in lubricants, paints, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and other industrial purposes. Although thought of as esters of glycerin and a varying blend of fatty acids, fats and oils also typically contain free fatty acids, monoglycerides, and diglycerides.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;source : www.wikipedia.org&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-4543825000471374841?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/4543825000471374841/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/vegetable-fats-and-oils.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/4543825000471374841'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/4543825000471374841'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/vegetable-fats-and-oils.html' title='Vegetable fats and oils'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S1P6Q2BVRdI/AAAAAAAAAOk/xpIF5nm39r4/s72-c/145px-Olive_oil_from_Oneglia.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-656204071022493057</id><published>2010-01-17T21:55:00.001-08:00</published><updated>2010-01-17T22:01:44.071-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='minyak nabati'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='asam lemak'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='biodiesel'/><title type='text'>Asam Lemak</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S1P5QJ_ji1I/AAAAAAAAAOc/evKw-laIGI4/s1600-h/250px-AslemakC18.png"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 197px; height: 200px;" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S1P5QJ_ji1I/AAAAAAAAAOc/evKw-laIGI4/s200/250px-AslemakC18.png" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5427956031867292498" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Asam lemak, bersama-sama dengan gliserol, merupakan penyusun utama minyak nabati atau lemak dan merupakan bahan baku untuk semua lipida pada makhluk hidup. Asam ini mudah dijumpai dalam minyak masak (goreng), margarin, atau lemak hewan dan menentukan nilai gizinya. Secara alami, asam lemak bisa berbentuk bebas (karena lemak yang terhidrolisis) maupun terikat sebagai gliserida.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Karakteristik Asam Lemak&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Asam lemak tidak lain adalah asam alkanoat atau asam karboksilat berderajat tinggi (rantai C lebih dari 6). Karena berguna dalam mengenal ciri-cirinya, asam lemak dibedakan menjadi asam lemak jenuh dan asam lemak tak jenuh. Asam lemak jenuh hanya memiliki ikatan tunggal di antara atom-atom karbon penyusunnya, sementara asam lemak tak jenuh memiliki paling sedikit satu ikatan ganda di antara atom-atom karbon penyusunnya.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Asam lemak merupakan asam lemah, dan dalam air terdisosiasi sebagian. Umumnya berfase cair atau padat pada suhu ruang (27° Celsius). Semakin panjang rantai C penyusunnya, semakin mudah membeku dan juga semakin sukar larut.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Asam lemak jenuh bersifat lebih stabil (tidak mudah bereaksi) daripada asam lemak tak jenuh. Ikatan ganda pada asam lemak tak jenuh mudah bereaksi dengan oksigen (mudah teroksidasi). Karena itu, dikenal istilah bilangan oksidasi bagi asam lemak.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Keberadaan ikatan ganda pada asam lemak tak jenuh menjadikannya memiliki dua bentuk: cis dan trans. Semua asam lemak nabati alami hanya memiliki bentuk cis (dilambangkan dengan "Z", singkatan dari bahasa Jerman zusammen). Asam lemak bentuk trans (trans fatty acid, dilambangkan dengan "E", singkatan dari bahasa Jerman entgegen) hanya diproduksi oleh sisa metabolisme hewan atau dibuat secara sintetis. Akibat polarisasi atom H, asam lemak cis memiliki rantai yang melengkung. Asam lemak trans karena atom H-nya berseberangan tidak mengalami efek polarisasi yang kuat dan rantainya tetap relatif lurus.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ketengikan (Ingg. rancidity) terjadi karena asam lemak pada suhu ruang dirombak akibat hidrolisis atau oksidasi menjadi hidrokarbon, alkanal, atau keton, serta sedikit epoksi dan alkohol (alkanol). Bau yang kurang sedap muncul akibat campuran dari berbagai produk ini.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;article source :www.wikipedia.org&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-656204071022493057?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/656204071022493057/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/asam-lemak.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/656204071022493057'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/656204071022493057'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/asam-lemak.html' title='Asam Lemak'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S1P5QJ_ji1I/AAAAAAAAAOc/evKw-laIGI4/s72-c/250px-AslemakC18.png' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-4868121231346232447</id><published>2010-01-14T22:56:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2010-01-14T23:47:08.447-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='rose oils'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='essential oils'/><title type='text'>Rose Oils</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S1AcMGT6ZcI/AAAAAAAAAOM/GRQDAMd27CI/s1600-h/rose+oils.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 83px; height: 135px;" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S1AcMGT6ZcI/AAAAAAAAAOM/GRQDAMd27CI/s200/rose+oils.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5426868545159587266" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Rose oil, meaning either rose otto (attar of rose, attar of roses) or rose absolute, is the essential oil extracted from the petals of various types of rose. Rose ottos are extracted through steam distillation, while rose absolutes are obtained through solvent extraction or supercritical carbon dioxide extraction, with the absolute being used more commonly in perfumery. Even with their high price and the advent of organic synthesis, rose oils are still perhaps the most widely used essential oil in perfumery.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The most common chemicals compounds present in rose oil are: citronellol, geraniol, nerol, linalool, phenyl ethyl alcohol, farnesol, stearoptene, α-pinene, β-pinene, α-terpinene, limonene, p-cymene, camphene, β-caryophyllene, neral, citronellyl acetate, geranyl acetate, neryl acetate, eugenol, methyl eugenol, rose oxide, α-damascenone, β-damascenone, benzaldehyde, benzyl alcohol, rhodinyl acetate, phenyl ethyl formate&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The key flavor compounds that contribute to the distinctive scent of rose oil, however, are beta-damascenone, beta-damascone, beta-ionone, and rose oxide. Beta-damascenone presence and quantity is considered as the marker for the quality of rose oil. Even though these compounds exist in less than 1% quantity of rose oil, they make up for slightly more than 90% of the odor content due to their low odor detection thresholds&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Due to the labor-intensive production process and the low content of oil in the rose blooms, rose oil commands a very high price. Harvesting of flowers is done by hand in the morning before sunrise and material is distilled the same day.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;There are three main methods of extracting the oil from the plant material:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1. Steam distillation, which produces an oil called rose otto or attar of roses.&lt;br /&gt;2. Solvent extraction, which results in an oil called rose absolute.&lt;br /&gt;3. Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction, yielding an essential oil that may be marketed as either an absolute or as a CO2 extract.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Distillation&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In the process of distillation, large stills, traditionally of copper, are filled with roses and water. The still is fired for 60–105 minutes. The vaporized water and rose oil exit the still and enter a condensing apparatus and are then collected in a flask. This distillation yields a very concentrated oil, direct oil, which makes up about 20% of the final product. The water which condenses along with the oil is drained off and redistilled, cohobation, in order to obtain the water-soluble fractions of the rose oil such as phenyl ethyl alcohol which are a vital component of the aroma and which make up the large bulk, 80%, of the oil. The two oils are combined and make the final rose otto.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Rose otto is usually dark olive-green in color and will form white crystals at normal room temperature which disappear when the oil is gently warmed. It will tend to become more viscous at lower temperatures due to this crystallization of some of its components.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The essence has a very strong odor, but is pleasant when diluted and used for perfume. Attar of roses was once made in India, Persia, Syria, and the Ottoman Empire. The Rose Valley in Bulgaria, near the town of Kazanlak, is among the major producers of attar of roses in the world.[2]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Due to the heat required for distillation, some of the compounds extracted from the rose undergo denaturing or chemical breakdown. As such, rose otto does not smell very similar to "fresh" roses.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The hydrosol portion of the distillate is known as rosewater. This inexpensive by-product is used widely as a food flavoring as well as in skin care.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Solvent extraction&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In the solvent extraction method, the flowers are agitated in a vat with a solvent such as hexane, which draws out the aromatic compounds as well as other soluble substances such as wax and pigments. The extract is subjected to vacuum processing which removes the solvent for re-use. The remaining waxy mass is known as a concrete. The concrete is then mixed with alcohol which dissolves the aromatic constituents, leaving behind the wax and other substances. The alcohol is low-pressure evaporated, leaving behind the finished absolute. The absolute may be further processed to remove any impurities that are still present from the solvent extraction.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Rose absolute is a deep reddish brown with no crystals. Due to the low temperatures in this process, the absolute may be more faithful to the scent of the fresh rose than the otto.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Carbon dioxide extraction&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A third process, supercritical carbon dioxide extraction, combines the best aspects of the other two methods. When carbon dioxide is put under at least 72.9 atm of pressure and at a temperature of at least 31.1°C (the critical point), it becomes a supercritical fluid with the permeation properties of a gas and the solvation properties of a liquid. (Under normal pressure CO2 changes directly from a solid to a gas in a process known as sublimation.) The supercritical fluid CO2 extracts the aromatics from the plant material.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Like solvent extraction, the CO2 extraction takes place at a low temperature, extracts a wide range of compounds rendering an essence more faithful to the original, and leaves the aromatics unaltered by heat. Because CO2 is gas at normal atmospheric pressure, it leaves no trace of itself in the final product. The equipment for CO2 extraction is expensive, which is reflected in the price of the essential oils obtained from the process.&lt;br /&gt;source : &lt;a href="http://wikipedia.org"&gt;wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-4868121231346232447?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/4868121231346232447/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/rose-oils.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/4868121231346232447'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/4868121231346232447'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/rose-oils.html' title='Rose Oils'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S1AcMGT6ZcI/AAAAAAAAAOM/GRQDAMd27CI/s72-c/rose+oils.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-2713300569630150829</id><published>2010-01-14T18:58:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2010-01-14T19:09:39.322-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Beneficiation'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Bioetanol'/><title type='text'>How and Why to Make Bioethanol</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S0_cXuke09I/AAAAAAAAAOE/bY_JF7ZRLWk/s1600-h/bioetanol.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 118px; height: 82px;" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S0_cXuke09I/AAAAAAAAAOE/bY_JF7ZRLWk/s200/bioetanol.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5426798376200885202" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ethanol (ethyl alcohol), also known as grain alcohol, is the same 'alcohol' found in all alcoholic drinks. Bioethanol is simply ethanol that has been produced using biological materials (biomass) for feedstocks. Since it relies on sunlight and photosynthesis to contribute to the growth of that biomass (plants, grasses, corn, wheat, etc), bioethanol is a renewable fuel. Bioethanol is made when biomass is converted to sugars, which are then fermented into ethanol. The process of hydrolysis seperates most of the water from ethanol, leaving an end product that is generally about 95% ethanol and 5% water. Bioethanol can be blended with conventional gasoline at any ratio, but the most common blend is E10 (10% ethanol, 90% gasoline, sometimes called Gasohol), which can be used in existing gasoline engines without modifications and without affecting vehicle warranty. Higher blends, such as E85, require a Flexible fuel vehicle (FFV).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The energy economy needs alternatives to fossil fuels, as demand rockets skyward and concern mounts over the effects of fossil fuels on climate. One possibility is bioethanol, a renewable, carbon-neutral fuel that can be used as a direct replacement for liquid petroleum gas (LPG) in internal combustion engines. Samir Bhatt gave a talk at the New Cavendish Laboratory on 26 July to describe the production of bioethanol and its possible future uses. Bhatt’s work in this area began with a project he conducted in 2004 at the University of Bath to design a bioethanol facility&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;from scratch, taking into account everything from material requirements, through detailed process design, to economic viability and environmental impacts. He now works as a bioinformatician at the Sanger Institute. The production of bioethanol can be broken down into five stages: feedstock growth, milling, hydrolysis, fermentation and purification. The raw material for bioethanol production is carbohydrate from plants. Any carbohydrate source can in principle be used as a feedstock. Sugar beet is the most common crop grown in the UK for this purpose. In Brazil, the world’s biggest bioethanol producer, sugar cane is the crop of choice, while the USA and Canada rely heavily on maize.&lt;br /&gt;These feedstocks are processed and ground into homogeneous feed (milling) toincrease the accessible surface area of carbohydrates for hydrolysis. The hydrolysis stage breaks down the chains of complex carbohydrates such as starch into&lt;br /&gt;simple sugars such as glucose. These sugars are then digested in large steel containers called fermenters by microorganisms such as yeast, which produces ethanol as a by-product of its normal metabolism. Ethanol is toxic to yeast at concentrations above about 15%, so it must be continually siphoned from the fermenter in order to maintain production. The ethanol is normally siphoned off at about 6% and must then be purified to greater than 99% to be fuel-grade for internal combustion engines. Because the profit margin for bioethanol production is small, every aspect must be optimised in order to achieve a financial return. Teams of engineers work to refine every detail of production, from recycling undigested starch to choosing the thickness of fermenter rotor blades.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;With such precise optimisation, bioethanol production can and has been a success around the world. Brazil has lead the way since the creation of its 'ProAlcool' program in 1975. By 1988 a third of all Brazil’s cars were fuelled solely by&lt;br /&gt;bioethanol. Ethanol/LPG blends are now widely available in the USA, where the bioethanol market is growing by around 15% per year. The USA is close to overtaking Brazil as the largest bioethanol producer.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In the UK, Tesco now sells LPG containing 5% bioethanol as standard at hundreds of petrol stations across the country, while in March Morrisons opened the nation’s first 'E85' pump, delivering a mixture of 85% bioethanol and 15% petrol. Advances in technology have improved production efficiency dramatically over the past three decades. Modern plants now take advantage of enzyme hydrolysis that improves glucose yield from complex carbohydrates, newly developed strains of yeast and bacteria that can take advantage of otherwise indigestible 5-carbon sugars such as xylose, and new&lt;br /&gt;membrane technologies are making ethanol purification to fuel grade 99% quicker and cheaper. Improved efficiency,combined with expected increases in demand as fossil fuel sources become unreliable leading to higher prices, may make bioethanol an even more lucrative business in the coming years.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Indeed, the market is already growing: world production of bioethanol jumped from the energy equivalent of just over 10 million tonnes of crude oil (tonnes of oil equivalent' or 'toe') in 2002 to over 16 million toe in 2005. This is, however, still&lt;br /&gt;dwarfed by total global crude oil production, which was around 4.3 billion toe for 2005. According to Futura Petroleum Ltd, bioethanol has the potential to provide 1.3 billion toe, equivalent to 30% of world crude oil consumption in 2005. Other biofuels also show great promise. Biobutanol can be produced in much the same way as bioethanol, has an energy density closer to petroleum gas and can be used in standard engines at higher concentrations than bioethanol.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;No one energy source will meet the world’s needs, especially given that demand is set to grow still further. Although it is unclear how the energy market will play out over the next half-century, it seems that biofuels could play an increasingly&lt;br /&gt;prominent part. David Mackay's homepage, including 'You Figure it Out', a new book on the sustainable energy crisis.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Contributed by Peter Davenport From Source &lt;a href="http://www.bluesci.org"&gt;http://www.bluesci.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-2713300569630150829?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/2713300569630150829/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/how-and-why-to-make-bioethanol.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/2713300569630150829'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/2713300569630150829'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/how-and-why-to-make-bioethanol.html' title='How and Why to Make Bioethanol'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S0_cXuke09I/AAAAAAAAAOE/bY_JF7ZRLWk/s72-c/bioetanol.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-6668103672066055135</id><published>2010-01-11T17:32:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2010-01-11T17:35:39.519-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Teknologi Penggerak'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Pneumatic'/><title type='text'>Pneumatic Actuator</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S0vR16VWd-I/AAAAAAAAANU/4mi09hYhfbk/s1600-h/pna.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 109px; height: 128px;" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S0vR16VWd-I/AAAAAAAAANU/4mi09hYhfbk/s200/pna.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5425660900219975650" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A pneumatic actuator converts energy (in the form of compressed air, typically) into motion. The motion can be rotary or linear, depending on the type of actuator. Some types of pneumatic actuators include:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    * Tie rod cylinders&lt;br /&gt;    * Rotary actuators&lt;br /&gt;    * Grippers&lt;br /&gt;    * Rodless actuators with magnetic linkage or rotary cylinders&lt;br /&gt;    * Rodless actuators with mechanical linkage&lt;br /&gt;    * Pneumatic artificial muscles&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    * Speciality actuators that combine rotary and linear motion—frequently used for clamping operations&lt;br /&gt;    * Vacuum generators&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A Pneumatic actuator mainly consists of a piston, a cylinder, and valves or ports. The piston is covered by a diaphragm, or seal, which keeps the air in the upper portion of the cylinder, allowing air pressure to force the diaphragm downward, moving the piston underneath, which in turn moves the valve stem, which is linked to the internal parts of the actuator. Pneumatic actuators may only have one spot for a signal input, top or bottom, depending on action required. Valves require little pressure to operate and usually double or triple the input force. The larger the size of the piston, the larger the output pressure can be. Having a larger piston can also be good if air supply is low, allowing the same forces with less input. These pressures are large enough to crush object in the pipe. On 100 kPa input, you could lift a small car (upwards 1,000 lbs) easily, and this is only a basic, small pneumatic valve. However, the resulting forces required of the stem would be too great and cause the valve stem to fail.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;This pressure is transferred to the valve stem, which is hooked up to either the valve plug (see plug valve), butterfly valve etc. Larger forces are required in high pressure or high flow pipelines to allow the valve to overcome these forces, and allow it to move the valves moving parts to control the material flowing inside.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Valves input pressure is the "control signal." This can come from a variety of measuring devices, and each different pressure is a different set point for a valve. A typical standard signal is 20–100 kPa. For example, a valve could be controlling the pressure in a vessel which has a constant out-flow, and a varied in-flow (varied by the actuator and valve). A pressure transmitter will monitor the pressure in the vessel and transmit a signal from 20–100 kPa. 20 kPa means there is no pressure, 100 kPa means there is full range pressure (can be varied by the transmiters calibration points). As the pressure rises in the vessel, the output of the transmitter rises, this increase in pressure is sent to the valve, which causes the valve to stroke downard, and start closing the valve, decreasing flow into the vessel, reducing the pressure in the vessel as excess pressure is evacuated through the out flow. This is called a direct acting process.&lt;br /&gt;sumber : www.wikipedia.org&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-6668103672066055135?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/6668103672066055135/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/pneumatic-actuator.html#comment-form' title='1 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/6668103672066055135'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/6668103672066055135'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/pneumatic-actuator.html' title='Pneumatic Actuator'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S0vR16VWd-I/AAAAAAAAANU/4mi09hYhfbk/s72-c/pna.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>1</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-5295533116383863045</id><published>2010-01-11T17:27:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2010-01-11T17:36:22.929-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Teknologi Penggerak'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Pneumatic'/><title type='text'>Pneumatic</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S0vQvFARK1I/AAAAAAAAANM/Mt3Bj6rZNjE/s1600-h/pn.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 95px; height: 133px;" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S0vQvFARK1I/AAAAAAAAANM/Mt3Bj6rZNjE/s200/pn.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5425659683313625938" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pneumatics is the use of pressurized gas to affect mechanical motion.&lt;br /&gt;Pneumatics is that branch of technology, which deals with the study and application of use of pressurized gas to affect mechanical motion.&lt;br /&gt;Pneumatic power is used in industry, where factory machines are commonly plumbed for compressed air; other compressed inert gases can also be used. Pneumatics also has applications in dentistry, construction, mining, and other areas.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Examples of pneumatic systems and components&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    * Air brakes on buses and trucks&lt;br /&gt;    * Air brakes, on trains&lt;br /&gt;    * Air compressors&lt;br /&gt;    * Air engines for pneumatically powered vehicles&lt;br /&gt;    * Barostat systems used in Neurogastroenterology and for researching electricity&lt;br /&gt;    * Cable jetting, a way to install cables in ducts&lt;br /&gt;    * Compressed-air engine and compressed-air vehicles&lt;br /&gt;    * Gas-operated reloading&lt;br /&gt;    * Holman Projector, a pneumatic anti-aircraft weapon&lt;br /&gt;    * Lego pneumatics can be used to build pneumatic models&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    * Pipe organs:&lt;br /&gt;          o Electro-pneumatic action&lt;br /&gt;          o Tubular-pneumatic action&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    * Pneumatic actuator&lt;br /&gt;    * Pneumatic air guns&lt;br /&gt;    * Pneumatic cylinder&lt;br /&gt;    * Pneumatic Launchers, a type of spud gun&lt;br /&gt;    * Pneumatic mail systems&lt;br /&gt;    * Pneumatic motor&lt;br /&gt;    * Pneumatic tire&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    * Pneumatic tools:&lt;br /&gt;          o Pneumatic drill (jackhammer) used by road workers&lt;br /&gt;          o Pneumatic nailgun&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    * Pressure regulator&lt;br /&gt;    * Pressure sensor&lt;br /&gt;    * Pressure switch&lt;br /&gt;    * Switch&lt;br /&gt;    * Vacuum pump&lt;br /&gt;article source : www.wikipedia.org&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-5295533116383863045?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/5295533116383863045/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/pneumatic.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/5295533116383863045'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/5295533116383863045'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/pneumatic.html' title='Pneumatic'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S0vQvFARK1I/AAAAAAAAANM/Mt3Bj6rZNjE/s72-c/pn.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-3343873007607143055</id><published>2010-01-11T17:18:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2010-01-11T17:27:06.757-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Teknologi Penggerak'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Pneumatic'/><title type='text'>Pneumatic Tube</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S0vP2ikxchI/AAAAAAAAANE/zzyKxF3pN20/s1600-h/180px-Rohrpoststation.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 117px; height: 200px;" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S0vP2ikxchI/AAAAAAAAANE/zzyKxF3pN20/s200/180px-Rohrpoststation.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5425658711998820882" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pneumatic tubes (or capsule pipelines; Lamson tubes) are systems in which cylindrical containers are propelled through a network of tubes by compressed air or by vacuum. They are used for transporting solid objects, as opposed to more generic pipelines, which transport gases or fluids.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pneumatic tube networks gained great prominence in the late 19th and early 20th century for businesses or administrations that needed to transport small but urgent packages (such as mail or money) over relatively short distances (within a building, or, at most, within a city). Some of these systems grew to great complexity, but they were eventually superseded by more modern methods of communication and courier transport, and are now much rarer than before.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A small number of pneumatic transportation systems were also built for larger cargo, to compete with more standard train and subway systems. However, these never gained as much popularity as practical systems.&lt;br /&gt;sumber : www.wikipedia.org&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-3343873007607143055?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/3343873007607143055/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/pneumatic-tube.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/3343873007607143055'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/3343873007607143055'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/pneumatic-tube.html' title='Pneumatic Tube'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S0vP2ikxchI/AAAAAAAAANE/zzyKxF3pN20/s72-c/180px-Rohrpoststation.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-4752703685617990857</id><published>2010-01-06T07:39:00.001-08:00</published><updated>2010-01-06T07:54:49.730-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Virgin Coconout Oil'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='VCO'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Beneficiation'/><title type='text'>How to Make VCO (Virgin Cococnout Oil)</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S0SyPb2dXMI/AAAAAAAAALs/ll1ez-ucrAo/s1600-h/vco.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 66px; height: 143px;" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S0SyPb2dXMI/AAAAAAAAALs/ll1ez-ucrAo/s200/vco.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5423655829504875714" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Virgin Coconut oil is everywhere these days. From cosmetics to medicines to food supplements, it is definitely a phenomenon that is here to stay. It therefore pays to gain knowledge and be familiar with virgin coconut oil.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Definition: Virgin Coconut oil is oil extracted from fresh coconut (not copra) meat by mechanical or natural means. It can be obtained with or without using heat. To protect the oil’s essential properties, the production of virgin coconut oil does not undergo chemical refining, bleaching, or deodorizing. Said to be high in vitamins and minerals, it is fit for consumption without the need for further processing.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Physical Characteristics: Pale yellow to colorless oil with a distinct taste and scent. Depending on the method used in the drying and processing, some virgin coconut oil may have a smoky flavor and slight yellowish in color. High quality virgin coconut oil should be colorless and residue free.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;According to the standards set by Department of Trade and Industry-Bureau of Product Standards of the Philippines (the worlds largest exporter of coconuts), virgin coconut oil must be colorless, sediment free with natural fresh coconut scent and free from rancid odors or tastes. It is required to have a maximum of .20% moisture and volatile content to prevent rancidity and should not contain food additives. -PNS/BAFPS 22:2004 with Amendment 1:2005.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Methods Used in the Manufacture of Virgin Coconut Oil&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1. Drying-Fresh coconut meat is dried to produce the oil. Low heat is used to quick dry the coconut meat.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2. Wet-milling- In this method, fresh coconut meat is not dried. The coconut meat is squeezed out to produce the milk first. The oil produced is separated from the water and solid components (which is mostly protein). It is difficult to remove the oil and various methods like boiling, fermentation, refrigeration, enzymes and mechanical centrifuge are used.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3. Fermentation- This is the traditional method. Coconut milk extracted from the fresh coconuts is fermented for 1-3 days for the oil to separate from the water and solid contents (which are mostly protein). The oil is slightly heated to reduce moisture content and be filtered.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Making Coconout Oil &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1.Select only fresh and mature quality coconuts.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2.Split coconuts and collect coconut water.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3.Grate coconuts and collect coconut meat.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;4.Bag the coconut meat. Use white nylon mesh bag.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;5.Place bag in a Cold Press* machine. At home, you can hand press using gloves. Collect coconut milk.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;6.Soak the pressed bag in coconut water and press for a second time. Collect more coconut milk.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;7.Allow the coconut milk to settle undisturbed in a cabinet at 32degC for 10-17 hours.&lt;br /&gt;Coconut oil will naturally separate from water and proteins.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;8.Carefully collect and filter the oil and avoid mixing with the bottom water layer. The oil is colorless.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Few Tips from Cris: To filter your oil, use filter paper from the drug store. Place it on top of a funnel so that the oil will drain to your chosen container. Filter at least 2 times. Cover well and keep away from light.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;article source : &lt;a href="http://www.thevirgincoconutoil.com"&gt;http://www.thevirgincoconutoil.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-4752703685617990857?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/4752703685617990857/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/how-to-make-vco-virgin-cococnout-oil.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/4752703685617990857'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/4752703685617990857'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/how-to-make-vco-virgin-cococnout-oil.html' title='How to Make VCO (Virgin Cococnout Oil)'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/S0SyPb2dXMI/AAAAAAAAALs/ll1ez-ucrAo/s72-c/vco.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-5778055975659150018</id><published>2010-01-02T04:34:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2010-01-02T04:39:47.386-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Cooking Oil'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Making Biodiesel Fuel'/><title type='text'>How to make biodiesel fuel from used cooking oil</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/Sz8-TRhR_eI/AAAAAAAAALc/FgC6IkdGw78/s1600-h/biodiesel.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 121px; height: 121px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/Sz8-TRhR_eI/AAAAAAAAALc/FgC6IkdGw78/s200/biodiesel.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5422120977218797026" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Biodiesel is a fuel that can be used directly in any diesel engine generally without modification. It's viscosity is twice that of regular diesel fuel which means it is better at lubricating your diesel engine than regular diesel. And... emissions are cut dramatically vs using standard diesel fuel. You can buy Biodiesel already made. Your other option is to make it yourself using your own homemade equipment or by purchasing something like a Fuelmeister biodiesel processor. It costs $2995, but it comes with everything you need to make many, many gallons of biodiesel fuel. One other option is to burn straight vegetable oil  (SVO) in your diesel engine.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;To do this, you must do three things: 1) You must pre-heat your vegetable oil including the storage tank and all feed lines, 2) You must start your engine using regular diesel or biodiesel, and 3) You must clean your system by burning only regular diesel or biodiesel before shutting the engine off. I don't recommend the SVO method because there is the possibility of carbon buildup in the long run and that may damage your engine. Here are the instructions on making your own biodiesel.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;WARNING!!!! - Methanol is flammable and toxic. Do not let it touch your skin or get in your eyes. Wear proper protective gloves, clothing, and eyewear at all times. Same thing with ethanol. Lye is also very caustic - do not allow it to touch your skin or clothing. When you mix the lye with the alcohol, it creates an even more toxic substance and toxic fumes which you should be very careful with - do not come into contact with it in any way. Always be in a well ventilated area. Also... you are 100% responsible for your own safety. The author is not responsible in any way whatsoever for personal injury or damage to your engine.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; Here is a general description of how to make biodiesel fuel using methanol, lye, and used cooking oil. This process is called transesterification.You can buy methanol from your local racetrack or chemical supply store. You can buy granulated lye (sodium hydroxide) from your local grocery store or hardware store. Make sure you filter the used cooking oil before using. Fry oil filters can be purchased in any good restaurant supply store. The oil also must be warmed up so it is not solid or lumpy or thick. You can use the sun to heat the oil or some kind of water heating element or a electric or gas burner of some sort. The ideal temperature is 120° F. If you are using flames, remember that the methanol is extremely flammable and you should turn your burner off before getting the methanol mixture anywhere near it. Of course, this should all be done in a well ventilated area too. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; Hint: to determine the amount of lye needed to start the transesterification process to make biodiesel, do a small test batch first. You don't want to mix up a large batch only to find out that you did not use enough lye. Some used cooking oils may contain different amounts of animal fats. The more animal fat in the vegetable oil, the more lye you need to start the process. Start with just 1 liter of oil and 200 milliliters (1/5th of a liter) of methanol and 4.5 grams of lye. First, mix the lye in with the methanol until dissolved (this creates sodium methoxide - very, very caustic - be careful). Then mix the sodium methoxide with the vegetable oil and mix for 1 hour. After mixing, let it settle for an hour or two and it should form two distinct layers of biodiesel (top) and glycerin (bottom). If there are not two distinct layers, repeat the whole process with 5.5 grams of lye. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;     You can also perform what is called a titration... Dissolve 1 gram of lye into one liter of distilled water and dissolve 1 milliliter of vegetable oil into 10 ml of isopropyl alcohol. Then drop the diluted lye into the diluted vegetable oil one ml at a time. After each ml, measure the pH of the diluted vegetable oil with litmus paper or a pH meter. When the pH rises significantly, the free fatty acids will be neutralized. The ideal pH is between 8 and 9. The number of ml used will equal the number of extra grams of lye to use per liter of vegetable oil (starting from 3.5 grams of lye).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;     So, let's assume 5.5 grams of lye produced the desired distinct two layers. We now want to scale it up to a 10 liter batch. So we need 10 liters of used cooking oil, heated. 2 liters of methanol and 55 grams of lye. Mix the lye with the methanol until dissolved and then pour the sodium methoxide mixture into the vegetable oil. Stir for one hour. The mixer can be a sump pump setup or some sort of mechanical electric mixer like a paint stirring setup. After mixing, let it settle for 8 hours. After settling, you can siphon or pump the biodiesel from the top or drain the glycerin from the bottom if you have a mixing container with a valve at the bottom. After washing, run it through a Racor fuel filter before burning it in your engine. The bottom part after settling is glycerin. If you allow it to sit in the sun for a week to evaporate all the methanol, you can use it as a degreaser or to clean your hands. To learn how to make liquid and hard soap from the glycerin, get the best book ever written on biodiesel.... "From the Fryer to the Fuel Tank". This book gives you everything you ever wanted to know about how to make biodiesel including how to build your own processor.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;     Washing your biodiesel... after the above process is completed, you should "wash" your biodiesel fuel to remove any residual soaps suspended in your fuel. The easiest way to get rid of the unwanted soap is to simply add water. The water will emulsify with the glycerin soap and settle to the bottom. So to perform the wash, simply spray an equal amount of water on top of your biodiesel and let it settle to the bottom for 12 hours. Drain the water off the bottom of your container with a valve and then repeat the process 2-3 times until the water drained off is clear. Heat your biodiesel up to 130° F for 20 minutes to evaporate any residual water and you are literally ready to go! Remember to filter it in a 5-10 micron filter before burning it in your engine.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;     Other ingredients - Instead of using methanol, you can use ethanol to make biodiesel. Ethanol is less toxic than methanol and is considered a "greener" fuel than methanol. Ethanol is "grain alcohol" and is usually made from corn which makes it a renewable fuel. Methanol is highly toxic and is made from fossil fuels or it can be distilled from fermented wood. That's why it's often called "wood alcohol". Also... you can use potassium hydroxide instead of sodium hydroxide. I believe you'll have to use 1.4 times as much potassium hydroxide as sodium hydroxide though. Make sure you do your "test batch" first!&lt;br /&gt;Two more things....&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1) You might be wondering... what kind of engine I need to use biodiesel... basically, biodiesel will run in any diesel engine unmodified. Biodiesel is a solvent, so if you put it in an old tank or use it with a diesel engine that has been running regular diesel, it may clean and dissolve some "residues" and then the residues will clog your fuel filter. Changing the filter often when you first start using biodiesel usually fixes this problem. Usually, manufacturers warranties are not voided when biodiesel is used, but check with your manufacturer to make sure. Sometimes a blend like B20 is required (20% biodiesel). If you are running straight vegetable oil (SVO), then you need to make modifications to pre-heat the oil to increase it's viscosity.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2) The only other problem you might have is with natural rubber gaskets and hoses in vehicles made prior to 1992. The biodiesel may degrade these types of rubber and they may need replacing after a while. Newer engines have been modified (synthetic rubber) to stand up to the newer blends of diesel fuel that have been in use since 1992 and these engines will work fine with biodiesel&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Article From &lt;a href="http://www.biodieselmake.com/"&gt;http://www.biodieselmake.com/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-5778055975659150018?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/5778055975659150018/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/how-to-make-biodiesel-fuel-from-used.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/5778055975659150018'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/5778055975659150018'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/how-to-make-biodiesel-fuel-from-used.html' title='How to make biodiesel fuel from used cooking oil'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/Sz8-TRhR_eI/AAAAAAAAALc/FgC6IkdGw78/s72-c/biodiesel.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-2002295794578844624</id><published>2010-01-02T02:20:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2010-01-02T02:38:12.216-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Personal Network'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Networking'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='APST'/><title type='text'>Personal Networking</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/Sz8hgPBQwyI/AAAAAAAAALU/uXtHPI4R8QM/s1600-h/personal.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 127px; height: 95px;" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/Sz8hgPBQwyI/AAAAAAAAALU/uXtHPI4R8QM/s200/personal.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5422089314048721698" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A Personal Network is a set of human contacts known to an individual, with whom that individual would expect to interact at intervals to support a given set of activities.&lt;br /&gt;Personal networks are intended to be mutually beneficial--extending the concept of teamwork beyond the immediate peer group. The term is usually encountered in the workplace, though it could apply equally to other pursuits outside work.&lt;br /&gt;Personal networking is the practice of developing and maintaining a personal network, which is usually undertaken over an extended period.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Networking has undergone a complete transformation. From a time when it had distatesful connotations with power-hungry megalomaniacs, who would develop social relationships to turn to their business advantage, it has become an essential but altruistic tool for those wishing to be the best they can be.&lt;br /&gt;Relationships are critical to success; so often, knowing the right person to ask is as valuable as knowing the answer yourself, if not more so. Being well-connected is the ultimate source of personal effectivess and advantage. And it's now a case of shared success - with what you can give being as important as what you get out of your networking success.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;So many networking books either focus on the social 'meeting people and making friends' or the overly formal 'influencing and connecting' sides to networking. Personal Networking provides a straightforward approach to building and working within networks. It delivers a practical guide to creating the kind of network that you need, and becoming a natural and effective networked communicator.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Contents &lt;br /&gt;Turn Personal Capital into Personal Success This book is the third in a trilogy of books that define how we need to be successful in the new world. Bye bye steady job, safe office and soft landing options, hello free agent working, free market operation, and open network business architecture. The three books deal with the critical success factors of Personal Leadership, Personal Value, and Personal Networking. Although you might act on one of these areas in isolation, only by tackling all three will you really optimize your personal capital in the market. The important point about the networking book is that doing 1 and 2 will lead to immediate success but only by taking what we know and do to market through a social network can we have to create synergistic success. &lt;br /&gt;Chapter 1 – Amplify your Personal Capital into Social Capital &lt;br /&gt;Chapter 2 – What me network? Everyone networks, but we don’t always realise it. Your network – just think about those people who you call when you need a hand with moving the furniture, writing a report or fixing up a blind date, these people are your network. The trick is to use the same process, but in this case to enhance the positing of your personal capital in the market. Specifically to not to just let it happen but to be conscious of the process. Networks network – think about the growth or mergers and acquisitions that run riot across industry. Although many of them seek to achieve cost reductions and economies of scale, a large element are designed to exploit the synergies of bringing diverse networks of people together. &lt;br /&gt;Chapter 3 - Networking as social capital &lt;br /&gt;Chapter 4 – Making your net-work&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The 6 factors that will help you to make your net-work are: &lt;br /&gt;Activate the abundance – Good networking is a process grounded in integrity, working within areas of shared interest where all players benefit. &lt;br /&gt;Build a bridge – You can easily categorize your different relationships in the form of a relationship bridge, to quickly gauge your level of interaction. This bridge will indicate the strength of the relationship s- ranging from inactive to interactive. &lt;br /&gt;Chart the connections – Take the time to explore the richness of your network. Your value will be more extensively realized when your network is mapped, measured and managed &lt;br /&gt;Dare to be Different – A key action within any networking process is stickiness. How can you keep to the front of your colleagues mind? Once way to do this is to help them understand how you are different form everyone else in their network. &lt;br /&gt;Entrust each other – the level of trust in your network is directly proportional to the quality and quantity of value that it will create. By creating a network link with someone, you are entrusting that persona with your brand, market value and personal reputation. This is not something to be given lightly. &lt;br /&gt;Fuel the flow – people will always be part of more than one network, so you need to seek to refresh and re-energize your network such that is stays attractive to others. Any system in this universe has a natural tendency to entropy, and networks need maintenance work! You fuel the flow not just to maintain the network but to maintain and grow the level and value of human connectivity. &lt;br /&gt;Chapter 5 – Activate abundance &lt;br /&gt;Chapter 6 – Build bridges &lt;br /&gt;Chapter 7 – Chart the connections &lt;br /&gt;Chapter 8 – Dare to be different &lt;br /&gt;Chapter 9 –Entrust others Chapter &lt;br /&gt;10 - Fuel the flow&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Author Mick Cope is founder of WizOz – a network based organisation that seeks to help people and businesses optimise their potential. WizOz offers a range of different products and services, all of which are based around the ideas outlined his books. As an author he has published seven books; Leading the Organisation to Learn; Seven Cs of Consulting; Know your value? Value what you know; Lead Yourself , Float-You, Personal Networking, and 7Cs of Coaching. He has a number of goals in life, the simple one is to live a life of personal freedom where he is able to think, feel and behave according to his values and not succumb to the demands of others. The more challenging one is to help 1000 people achieve the same in their life.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;aricle resources : &lt;a href="www.wikipedia.org"&gt;www.wikipedia.org&lt;/a&gt; &lt;a href="www.businesstitles.com"&gt;www.businesstitles.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-2002295794578844624?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/2002295794578844624/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/personal-networking.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/2002295794578844624'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/2002295794578844624'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2010/01/personal-networking.html' title='Personal Networking'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/Sz8hgPBQwyI/AAAAAAAAALU/uXtHPI4R8QM/s72-c/personal.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-644898189578393756</id><published>2009-12-29T20:32:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2009-12-29T20:48:35.013-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Beneficiation'/><title type='text'>Making Ice Cream Without Machine, Why Not ?</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzrbmfasxMI/AAAAAAAAAKk/uQsxfarec6U/s1600-h/ice+cream.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 84px; height: 150px;" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzrbmfasxMI/AAAAAAAAAKk/uQsxfarec6U/s200/ice+cream.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5420886555808810178" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;People have been making ice cream far longer than the invention of electricity so there's no reason you can't make ice cream and sorbets at home without a machine.&lt;br /&gt;The advantage to using an electric or hand-cranked machine is that the final result will be smoother and creamier. Freezing anything from liquid-to-solid means you're creating hard ice crystals, so if you're making it by hand, as your ice cream or sorbet mixture freezes, you want to break up those ice crystals as much as possible so your final results are as smooth and creamy as possible.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;!-- Begin: http://adsensecamp.com/ --&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;script src="http://adsensecamp.com/show/?id=%2BSVlAwkd4h4%3D&amp;cid=1mKE6FR8OXo%3D&amp;chan=xY26pdkJLmQ%3D&amp;type=2&amp;title=3D81EE&amp;text=000000&amp;background=E6E6E6&amp;border=E6E6E6&amp;url=2BA94F" type="text/javascript"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/script&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;!-- End: http://adsensecamp.com/ --&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Machines are relatively inexpensive nowadays with models costing less than $50, and yes, I've seen the ball, but if I started tossing one of those around the streets here in Paris, I'd probably get even more strange looks than I normally get. (Plus you'll need to lug some rock salt home as well.)&lt;br /&gt;But not everyone has the space or the budget for a machine, so here's how you can do your own ice cream at home without a churner. I recommend starting with an ice cream recipe that is custard-based for the smoothest texture possible. You can use my Vanilla Ice Cream or another favorite, or even this Strawberry Frozen Yogurt recipe using Greek-style or drained yogurt. The richer the recipe, the creamier and smoother the results are going to be.&lt;br /&gt;Ice cream made this way is best eaten soon after it's made—which shouldn't be a problem.&lt;br /&gt;Making Ice Cream Without A Machine&lt;br /&gt;1. Prepare your ice cream mixture, then chill it over an ice bath.&lt;br /&gt;2. Put a deep baking dish, or bowl made of plastic, stainless steel or something durable in the freezer, and pour your custard mixture into it.&lt;br /&gt;3. After forty-five minutes, open the door and check it.&lt;br /&gt;As it starts to freeze near the edges, remove it from the freezer and stir it vigorously with a spatula or whisk. Really beat it up and break up any frozen sections. Return to freezer.&lt;br /&gt;4. Continue to check the mixture every 30 minutes, stirring vigorously as it's freezing. If you have one, you can use a hand-held mixer for best results, or use a stick-blender or hand-held mixer.&lt;br /&gt;But since we're going low-tech here, you can also use just a spatula or a sturdy whisk along with some modest physical effort.&lt;br /&gt;5. Keep checking periodically and stirring while it freezes (by hand or with the electric mixer) until the ice cream is frozen. It will likely take 2-3 hours to be ready.&lt;br /&gt;You can easily make Stracciatella ice cream with Italian-style chocolate chips:&lt;br /&gt;Drizzle pure melted dark or milk chocolate (about 5 ounces, 140 g) over the almost-frozen mixture, then stir, breaking up the ribbons of chocolate as they start to freeze, to create little 'chips'.&lt;br /&gt;Transfer the ice cream to a covered storage container until ready to serve.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;article source :http://www.davidlebovitz.com&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-644898189578393756?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/644898189578393756/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/making-ice-cream-without-machine-why.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/644898189578393756'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/644898189578393756'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/making-ice-cream-without-machine-why.html' title='Making Ice Cream Without Machine, Why Not ?'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzrbmfasxMI/AAAAAAAAAKk/uQsxfarec6U/s72-c/ice+cream.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-2635284221803520412</id><published>2009-12-29T20:07:00.001-08:00</published><updated>2009-12-29T20:52:17.555-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Industrial Raw Material'/><title type='text'>Definition about Biomaterials</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzrcbNq2RHI/AAAAAAAAAKs/C2C4jt4ezKs/s1600-h/biomaterial.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 125px; height: 130px;" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzrcbNq2RHI/AAAAAAAAAKs/C2C4jt4ezKs/s200/biomaterial.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5420887461577770098" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;While a definition for the term 'biomaterial' has been difficult to formulate, more widely accepted working definitions include:&lt;br /&gt;"A biomaterial is any material, natural or man-made, that comprises whole or part of a living structure or biomedical device which performs, augments, or replaces a natural function".&lt;br /&gt;" A biomaterial is a nonviable material used in medical device,so it's intended to interact with a biological systems".&lt;br /&gt;A biomaterial is essentially a material that is used and adapted for a medical application. Biomaterials may have a benign function, such as being used for a heart valve, or may be bioactive with a more interactive functionality such as hydroxy-apatite coated hip implants.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;!-- Begin: http://adsensecamp.com/ --&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;script src="http://adsensecamp.com/show/?id=%2BSVlAwkd4h4%3D&amp;cid=1mKE6FR8OXo%3D&amp;chan=xY26pdkJLmQ%3D&amp;type=2&amp;title=3D81EE&amp;text=000000&amp;background=E6E6E6&amp;border=E6E6E6&amp;url=2BA94F" type="text/javascript"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/script&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;!-- End: http://adsensecamp.com/ --&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Biomaterials are also used every day in dental applications, surgery, and drug delivery (a construct with impregnated pharmaceutical products can be placed into the body, which permits the prolonged release of a drug over an extended period of time).&lt;br /&gt;The definition of a biomaterial does not just include man-made materials which are constructed of metals or ceramics. A biomaterial may also be an autograft, allograft or xenograft used as a transplant material&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Biomaterials are used in:&lt;br /&gt;1. Joint replacements&lt;br /&gt;2. Bone plates&lt;br /&gt;3. Bone cement&lt;br /&gt;4. Artificial ligaments and tendons&lt;br /&gt;5. Dental implants for tooth fixation&lt;br /&gt;6. Blood vessel prostheses&lt;br /&gt;7. Heart valves&lt;br /&gt;8. Skin repair devices&lt;br /&gt;9. Cochlear replacements&lt;br /&gt;10. Contact lenses&lt;br /&gt;11. Breast implants&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Biomaterials must be compatible with the body, and there are often issues of biocompatibility which must be resolved before a product can be placed on the market and used in a clinical setting. Because of this, biomaterials are usually subjected to the same requirements of those undergone by new drug therapies. All manufacturing companies are also required to ensure traceability of all of their products so that if a defective product is discovered, others in the same batch may be traced.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;articel source : www.wikipedia.com&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-2635284221803520412?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/2635284221803520412/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/definition-about-biomaterials.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/2635284221803520412'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/2635284221803520412'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/definition-about-biomaterials.html' title='Definition about Biomaterials'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzrcbNq2RHI/AAAAAAAAAKs/C2C4jt4ezKs/s72-c/biomaterial.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-2712129034503703170</id><published>2009-12-29T14:22:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2009-12-29T14:26:48.542-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Beneficiation'/><title type='text'>Industri Emping Melinjo dan Kendala yang Dihadapinya</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzqB8F1sWvI/AAAAAAAAAKc/PEU0mC254O0/s1600-h/emping.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 127px; height: 96px;" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzqB8F1sWvI/AAAAAAAAAKc/PEU0mC254O0/s200/emping.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5420787970853329650" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Tanaman melinjo dapat tumbuh pada ketinggian tempat 0-1.200 m dpl. Dengan demikian, tanaman melinjo dapat tumbuh di pegunungan berhawa lembab, bisa juga didataran rendah yang relatif kering. Namun agar dapat berproduksi secara maksimal, melinjo sebaiknya ditanam di dataran rendah yang ketinggiannya tidak lebih dari 400 m dpl dan dengan curah hujan sekitar 3.000-5.000 mm/tahun merata sepanjang tahun.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pohon melinjo sudah dapat dipanen setelah berumur 5-6 tahun. Panen dilakukan dua kali setahun. Panen besar sekitar bulan Mei-Juli, sedangkan panen kecil sekitar bulan Oktober-Desember. Sedangkan pemungutan bunga dan daun muda dapat dilakukan kapan saja. Hasil melinjo per pohon untuk tanaman melinjo yang sudah dewasa bervariasi antara 15.000-20.000 biji. Menurut petani, tanaman melinjo umur 15 tahun hasil produksi buahnya mencapai 50 kg klatak (buah yang telah dikupas kulitnya) sekali panen, berarti produksi yang diperoleh klatak 100 kg/pohon/tahun. Berbagai bagian dari pohon melinjo dapat dimanfaatkan sebagai bahan makanan.  Diantaranya, daun, biji melinjo dan kulit biji melinjo sering dimanfaatkan sebagai bahan untuk sayur. Selain itu, bijinya juga dapat diolah menjadi emping.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Emping melinjo adalah sejenis keripik yang dibuat dari biji melinjo yang telah tua.  Proses pembuatan emping tidak sulit dan dapat dilakukan dengan menggunakan alat-alat sederhana.  Emping melinjo merupakan salah satu komoditi pengolahan hasil pertanian yang memiliki nilai tinggi, baik karena harga jual yang relatif tinggi maupun sebagai komoditi ekspor yang dapat mendatangkan devisa. Sejauh ini, emping  diekspor ke negara-negara tetangga di antaranya ke Singapura, Malaysia dan Brunei. Bahkan, pasar ekspor yang potensial menjangkau Jepang, Eropa dan Amerika.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dalam sebuah presentsi potensi agroindustri emping melinjo di suatu kabupaten, beberapa orang peserta menampakkan kegusarannya. “Emping? Wah, asam urat itu!” Tampaknya persepsi bahwa emping identik dengan asam urat sudah demikian merasuk dan menyebar ke masrakarat luas. Seorang dokter lalu mencoba meluruskannya. “Pak, asam urat itu tidak ada hubungannya dengan emping atau jeroan dan lain-lain. Asam urat itu penyebabnya metabolisme tubuh tidak sempurna. Kalori yang seharusnya dibakar oleh oksigen menjadi tenaga dan urine; karena oksigen yang masuk kurang, proses pembakarannya tidak sempurna. Akibatnya limbah tubuh yang seharusnya berupa urine dan keringat, jadinya uric acid berupa kristal yang berujung runcing. Kalau kristal ini mengendap di ginjal, jadilah batu ginjal. Kalau mengendap di tulang rawan atau otot, jadilah nyeri tulang atau otot.” Terpaksalah acara presentasi agroindustri di kabupaten itu sedikit dibelokkan ke asam urat, sekadar meluruskan presepsi bahwa emping tidak ada urusan dengan sakit seseorang. Itulah kendala pertama pengembangan agroindustri emping melinjo. Yang pertamakali akan menentang upaya demikian, justru boss-boss para pengambil keputusan yang biasanya kurang olahraga, banyak stres, pikirannya tidak bersih hingga terkena gangguan asam urat. Kalau mereka diajak berbicara tentang emping, pasti dengan segera akan menolaknya.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Melinjo (Gnetum gnemon), adalah tanaman asli Asia Tenggara, khususnya Indonesia. Habitat tumbuhan ini tersebar dari Assam (India) sampai ke Fiji (Pasifik). Tanaman ini bisa tumbuh mulai dari dataran rendah sampai tinggi (0 sd. 1.200 m. dpl.) Bentuk tanaman berupa pohon setinggi 20 m. dan  berbatang lurus. Produk melinjo yang bernilai ekonomis adalah biji buah tuanya untuk emping; buah muda, bunga dan daun muda untuk sayur asam dan lodeh. Kulit buah tua pun di Jateng dan DIY memiliki nilai komersial cukupbaik untuk dikonsumsi sebagai bahan sayur. Satu pohon melinjo yang sudah berumur di atas 5 tahun dan terawat baik, mampu menghasilkan biji melinjo sebanyak 50 kg. per pohon per tahun. Dengan harga Rp 5.000,- per kg. maka dari satu pohon melinjo dpat diperoleh pendapatan Rp 250.000,- Kalau populasi tanaman dalam satu hektar 400 pohon (jarak dalam 5 X 5 m.), maka hasil dari tiap hektar kebun melinjo adalah 20 ton melinjo senilai Rp 100.000.000,- Pendapatan ini masih akan bertambah kalau kita memanen daun muda dan bunga jantannya. Sebab tanaman melinjo memang ada yang berumah satu (bunga jantan dan betina ada dalam satu pohon), ada juga yang berumah dua (bunga jantan dan betina terpisah dalam dua pohon). Jenis melinjo unggul yang selama ini banyak dikembangkan masyarakat secara komersial adalah melinjo medan yang bunga jantan serta betinanya terpisah pada pohon yang berbeda.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Kendala utama pengembangan agroindustri emping melinjo adalah kurangnya pasokan bahan baku. Dua sentra industri emping besar di Indonesia adalah Kec. Limpung di Kab. Batang, Jateng; dan Kec. Menes, Kab. Pandeglang, Banten. Irinisnya, di Kec. Limpung boleh dikatakan tidak ada tanaman melinjo. Di Menes dan Kab. Pandeglang pada umumnya, populasi tanaman melinjo masih cukup banyak. Meskipun bukan termasuk jenis melinjo unggul. Sentra-sentra emping lain yang tersebar di Jateng, DIY dan Jatim, relatif kecil jika dibandingkan dengan Limpung dan Menes. Namun kalau kita bicara populasi tanaman melinjo terbanyak, justru ada di Lampung. Sebenarnya bukan hanya lampung, melainkan seluruh pulau Sumatera. Karena pintu keluar melinjo sumatera ini adalah Provinsi Lampung, maka dikenallah melinjo sumatera ini sebagai melinjo lampung. Dari pelabuhan penyeberangan Bakauhuni ke Merak, melinjo lampung ini akan didistribusikan ke sentra-sentra emping yang tersebar di Jawa. Terutama ke Menes dan Limpung. Sebab meskipun populasi tanaman melinjo di Pandeglang bahkan Banten pada umumnya masih tinggi, namun populasi tersebut tetap tidak dapat mengimbangi permintaan industri emping. Karena suplai dari Lampung tetam sangat diandalkan oleh Menes. Hingga kadang-kadang ada hal yang tidak masuk akal. Melinjo sumatera itu sudah diangkut ke Batang di Jawa Tengah. tetapi karena ada informasi bahwa harga di Pandeglang jauh lebih tinggi, maka melinjo lampung yang sudah terlanjur masuk Jateng itu kembali dibawa ke Banten.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sentra industri emping di Menes memang cukup besar. Ekspor ke Timur Tengah dan Eropa tersendat bukan karena kurangnya permintaan, tetapi justru karena pasokan melinjo segar yang selalu tertinggal. Para produsen dan padagang  emping sendiri memang kurang begitu bergairah untuk melayani permintaan ekspor. Sebab, “main di pasar lokal pun masih sangat longgar, menguntungkan dan tidak repot.”  Selain itu memang ada perbedaan jenis emping antara  pasar  lokal dengan ekspor. Pasar lokal lebih menghendaki emping tipis berukuran kecil (@ 2 – 3 biji melinjo). Sementara pasar ekspor menginginkan emping setengah utuh yang hanya terdiri dari satu biji melinjo dan dalam kondisi siap konsumsi. Kerepotan untuk melayani pasar ekspor memang sangat beralasan. Eksportir dari Menes yang mengirim ke Timur Tengah dan Eropa, sebenarnya masih dalam volume yang sangat kecil berupa emping tipis. Yang akan mengkonsumsi emping demikian hanyalah bangsa kita sendiri yang sedang merantau menjadi TKI atau para mahasiswa kita yang sedang belajar di Eropa sana. Karenanya persyaratan standar mutu produk lalu menjadi kurang penting. Kalau kita serius melayani permintaan emping setengah utuh tersebut, maka persyaratan standar mutu produk (Codex) dan standar Sanitary serta Pythosanitary (SPS) menjadi sangat penting. Adanya persyaratan yang ketat inilah antara lain yang juga menjadi alasan keengganan pelaku emping kita untuk melakukan ekspor.&lt;br /&gt; Kendala psikologis dari para penentu keijakan (soal asam urat); kendala pasokan bahan mentah dan kendala persyaratan mutu (teknik produksi emping); adalah tiga permasalahan yang telah menghambat pertumbuhan agroindustri emping di Indonesia. Tentu ada pertanyaan, seberapa strategiskah komoditas ini bagi bangsa kita? Kita tahu bahwa masing-masing bangsa pasti memiliki komoditas unggulan yang menjadi semacam “trade mark” bagi bangsa tersebut. Misalnya saja Perancis unggul pada komoditas wine (anggur), parfum dan bumbu.  Belanda dikenal melalui bunganya, dengan tulip sebagai bunga nasional mereka. Thailand dikenal oleh dunia luar karena durian monthongnya. Padahal anggur yang dibanggakan oleh Perancis sebenarnya berasal dari lembah sungai Tigris dan Euphrat. Bahan baku parfum dan bumbu Perancis kebanyakan dari Italia, India, dan Indonesia. Durian monthong yang dibanggakan Thailand sebenarnya berasal dari Kalbar. Lalu apa produk agroindustri kebanggaan Indonesia? Jambu air kita telah lolos hingga sekarang bisa dibudidayakan dengan sangat baik oleh Taiwan. Belimbing kita justru berkembang di Malaysia. Melinjo adalah komoditas yang saat ini hanya berkambang baik di Indonesia. Tidak di India dan Srilanka, tidak pula di negara Asean lainnya. Kalau kita menyia-nyiakannya, bisa saja suatu ketika justru Vietnam yang diam-diam mengembangkannya lalu tahu-tahu mereka sudah bisa memproduksi emping berkualitas tinggi untuk ekspor.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Kasus “tercurinya” komoditas unggulan ini, bukan hanya monopoli Indonesia. Timur Tengah  (negara-negara Arab) selama dikenal sebagai penghasil produk-produk dari unta. Mulai dari karpet (bulu unta), daging unta dan minyak samin (dari susu unta). Selan itu Timur Tengah juga identik dengan minyak zaitun (olive oil) dan kurma. Namun mereka tidak mengembangkannya dengan serius karena tiba-tiba ada rejeki minyak dan sibuk perang. Tahu-tahu sekarang ini mereka harus mengimpor daging dan susu unta dari Australia. Karena di negeri ini unta bukan hanya sudah bisa diternak dengan sangat intensif, tetapi juga sudah menjadi liar dan hidup bebas di padang gurun. Australia juga sudah mampu mengembangkan  kurma unggul yang dalam waktu 2,5 tahun bisa mulai berbuah. Zaitun pun, sudah bisa ditanam di Australia dalam skala yang untuk ukuran Eropa Selatan sudah sangat besar. Namun Australia sendiri juga kecurian makadamia. “Nut” asli Australia ini telah dikembangkan dan diproses serta dikemas dengan cukup baik oleh Afrika Selatan dan Hawaii. Dan buah kiwi, sebenarnya milik RRC. Kiwi adalah buah hutan yang tombuh liar di Cina timur laut. Namun tahu-tahu buah eksotis ini bisa menjadi “trade mark” nya New Zaeland. Meskipun Indonesia sendiri sebenarnya telah “mencuri” karet dan sawit yang sebenarnya milik negara-negara Afrika dan Amerika tropis.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Kembali ke masalah melinjo, pertama-tama yang harus dilakukan adalah memutus hambatan psikologis dari para penentu kebijakan. Kalau beliau anti emping karena menderita sakit asam urat, bukan berarti penanaman melinjo harus dilarang dan industri emping berhenti. Kedua, pengembangan areal malinjo secara besar-besaran layak untuk dilakukan oleh Pemkab dan Pemprov. Para penangkar benih di Pekalongan, Lampung Tengah, siap dengan melinjo medannya yang unggul dalam jumlah jutaan batang per tahun. Balai Besar Industri Hasil Pertanian (BBIHP) di Bogor telah siap untuk mendisain mesin-mesin sederhana yang bisa memproduksi emping setengah utuh. Pasar sejak dulu sudah siap untuk menampungnya. Namun istilah “pasar yang sudah sejak dulu siap untuk menampungnya” ini jangan diartikan secara sederhana. Kenmudian pertanyaan yang muncul adalah, siapa yang memerlukan, berapa volumenya, mana teleponnya dan sebagainya. Sebab pengertian pasar dalam konteks ini adalah adanya peluang kebutuhan emping. Tetapi siapa yang akan menjadi importir di Belanda, di Timur Tengah, di Hongkong dan lain-lain, masih perlu penggarapan yang akan makan waktu, biaya dan juga tenaga. Yang disebut sebagai “pasar” di sini bukan sesuatu yang sudah ready stock hingga kita tinggal telepon, kirim barang dan uang ditransfer.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Agroindustri emping adalah bisnis yang sangat-sangat padat karya. Mulai dari panen, pengupasan kulit buah, proses pembuatan emping, pemasakan (oven) dan  pengemasan, semuanya memerlukan tenaga kerja dalam jumlah yang sangat banyak. Memang agroindustri ini juga memerlukan modal besar. Namun nilai investasi tersebut relatif kecil jika dibanding dengan jumlahtenaga kerja yang bakal bisa diserap olehnya. Lain dengan aroindustri udang yang sangat padat modal. Dalam kondisi ekonomi Indonesia yang masih sangat susah dewasa ini, kita tidak perlu harus menunggu uluran tangan IMF atau World Bank sambil tidur-tiduran atau sibuk saling menyalahkan. Melinjo adalah komoditas yang sangat strategis bukan hanya untuk menghidupkan perekonomian rakyat, melainkan juga untuk prestise bangsa.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;sumber : www.bi.go.id&lt;br /&gt;         http://foragri.blogsome.com&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-2712129034503703170?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/2712129034503703170/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/industri-emping-melinjo-dan-kendala.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/2712129034503703170'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/2712129034503703170'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/industri-emping-melinjo-dan-kendala.html' title='Industri Emping Melinjo dan Kendala yang Dihadapinya'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzqB8F1sWvI/AAAAAAAAAKc/PEU0mC254O0/s72-c/emping.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-9140039019974521855</id><published>2009-12-29T14:07:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2010-01-14T23:51:05.384-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='essential oils'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='minyak atsiri'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='PPMA'/><title type='text'>Potensi Minyak Atsiri dari Bunga Mawar (Rose)</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzqAICPr4XI/AAAAAAAAAKU/xsnNEdrES1Y/s1600-h/250px-Wild_rose_flower.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 200px; height: 134px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzqAICPr4XI/AAAAAAAAAKU/xsnNEdrES1Y/s200/250px-Wild_rose_flower.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5420785977023783282" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Mawar adalah tanaman semak dari genus Rosa sekaligus nama bunga yang dihasilkan tanaman ini. Mawar liar yang terdiri lebih dari 100 spesies kebanyakan tumbuh di belahan bumi utara yang berudara sejuk. Spesies mawar umumnya merupakan tanaman semak yang berduri atau tanaman memanjat yang tingginya bisa mencapai 2 sampai 5 meter. Walaupun jarang ditemui, tinggi tanaman mawar yang merambat di tanaman lain bisa mencapai 20 meter.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sebagian besar spesies mempunyai daun yang panjangnya antara 5-15 cm, dua-dua berlawanan (pinnate). Daun majemuk yang tiap tangkai daun terdiri dari paling sedikit 3 atau 5 hingga 9 atau 13 anak daun dan daun penumpu (stipula) berbentuk lonjong, pertulangan menyirip, tepi tepi beringgit, meruncing pada ujung daun dan berduri pada batang yang dekat ke tanah. Mawar sebetulnya bukan tanaman tropis, sebagian besar spesies merontokkan seluruh daunnya dan hanya beberapa spesies yang ada di Asia Tenggara yang selalu berdaun hijau sepanjang tahun.&lt;br /&gt;Bunga terdiri dari 5 helai daun mahkota dengan perkecualian Rosa sericea yang hanya memiliki 4 helai daun mahkota. Warna bunga biasanya putih dan merah jambu atau kuning dan merah pada beberapa spesies. Ovari berada di bagian bawah daun mahkota dan daun kelopak.&lt;br /&gt;Bunga menghasilkan buah agregat (berkembang dari satu bunga dengan banyak putik) yang disebut rose hips. Masing-masing putik berkembang menjadi satu buah tunggal (achene), sedangkan kumpulan buah tunggal dibungkus daging buah pada bagian luar. Spesies dengan bunga yang terbuka lebar lebih mengundang kedatangan lebah atau serangga lain yang membantu penyerbukan sehingga cenderung menghasilkan lebih banyak buah. Mawar hasil pemuliaan menghasilkan bunga yang daun mahkotanya menutup rapat sehingga menyulitkan penyerbukan. Sebagian buah mawar berwarna merah dengan beberapa perkecualian seperti Rosa pimpinellifolia yang menghasilkan buah berwarna ungu gelap hingga hitam.&lt;br /&gt;Pada beberapa spesies seperti Rosa canina dan Rosa rugosa menghasilkan buah rose hips yang sangat kaya dengan vitamin C bahkan termasuk di antara sumber vitamin C alami yang paling kaya. Buah rose hips disukai burung pemakan buah yang membantu penyebaran biji mawar bersama kotoran yang dikeluarkan. Beberapa jenis burung seperti burung Finch juga memakan biji-biji mawar.&lt;br /&gt;Pada umumnya mawar memiliki duri berbentuk seperti pengait yang berfungsi sebagai pegangan sewaktu memanjat tumbuhan lain. Beberapa spesies yang tumbuh liar di tanah berpasir di daerah pantai seperti Rosa rugosa dan Rosa pimpinellifolia beradaptasi dengan duri lurus seperti jarum yang mungkin berfungsi untuk mengurangi kerusakan akibat dimakan binatang, menahan pasir yang diterbangkan angin dan melindungi akar dari erosi. Walaupun sudah dilindungi duri, rusa kelihatannya tidak takut dan sering merusak tanaman mawar. Beberapa spesies mawar mempunyai duri yang tidak berkembang dan tidak tajam.&lt;br /&gt;Mawar dapat dijangkiti beberapa penyakit seperti karat daun yang merupakan penyakit paling serius. Penyebabnya adalah cendawan Phragmidium mucronatum yang menyebabkan kerontokan daun. Penyakit yang tidak begitu berbahaya seperti Tepung Mildew disebabkan cendawan Sphaerotheca pannosa, sedangkan penyakit Bercak Hitam yang ditandai timbulnya bercak-bercak hitam pada daun disebabkan oleh cendawan Diplocarpon rosae. Mawar juga merupakan makanan bagi larva beberapa spesies Lepidoptera.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight:bold;"&gt;Perkembangan Industri Parfum dari Minyak Mawar&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Parfum (minyak wangi) dibuat dari minyak mawar yang merupakan salah satu jenis minyak atsiri yang diperoleh dari proses penyulingan dan penguapan lumatan daun-daun mahkota. Teknik penyulingan mawar berasal dari Persia yang menyebar ke Arab dan India.&lt;br /&gt;Pada saat ini, kebutuhan minyak mawar dunia sebanyak 70%-80% dipenuhi oleh pusat penyulingan mawar di Bulgaria sedangkan sisanya dipenuhi oleh Iran dan Jerman. Penyulingan minyak mawar di Bulgaria, Iran, dan Jerman menggunakan mawar damaskus Rosa damascena 'Trigintipetala,' sedangkan penyulingan di Perancis menggunakan jenis Rosa centifolia. Minyak mawar berwarna kuning pucat atau kuning keabu-abuan juga disebut minyak 'Rose Absolute' untuk membedakannya dengan minyak mawar yang sudah diencerkan. Penyulingan menghasilkan minyak mawar dengan perbandingan 1/3.000 sampai 1/6.000 dari berat bunga, sehingga dibutuhkan 2.000 bunga mawar untuk menghasilkan minyak mawar sebanyak 1 gram.&lt;br /&gt;Minyak mawar terdiri dari geraniol beraroma wangi yang mempunyai rumus kimia C10H18O dengan rumus bangun CH3.C[CH3]:CH.CH2.CH2.C[CH3]:CH.CH2OH dan l-sitronelol; serta rose camphor (parafin tanpa bau).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;sumber : wikipedia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-9140039019974521855?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/9140039019974521855/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/potensi-minyak-atsiri-dari-bunga-mawar.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/9140039019974521855'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/9140039019974521855'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/potensi-minyak-atsiri-dari-bunga-mawar.html' title='Potensi Minyak Atsiri dari Bunga Mawar (Rose)'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzqAICPr4XI/AAAAAAAAAKU/xsnNEdrES1Y/s72-c/250px-Wild_rose_flower.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-4693410158309615978</id><published>2009-12-28T17:30:00.001-08:00</published><updated>2009-12-28T17:37:17.546-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Otomation Technology'/><title type='text'>How to Choose Microcontroller</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzldQ-HeJ1I/AAAAAAAAAKM/jp7qNJJbUGE/s1600-h/micro2.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 142px; height: 139px;" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzldQ-HeJ1I/AAAAAAAAAKM/jp7qNJJbUGE/s200/micro2.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5420466172650727250" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;It used to be that the number of different microcontroller chips available to the hobbyist was pretty limited. You got to use whatever you could manage to buy from the mail-order chip dealer, and that narrowed down the choice to a small number of chips.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;But times have changed. Digikey lists over 16000 different line items under a "microcontroller" search. Which one should a hobbyist with no particular prior experience choose?&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Here are some hints. These are particularly aimed at someone trying to pick a microcontroller to use for the first time at least partially as a learning experience, rather than someone who wants to accomplish a particular task.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Update 2009-01-28: This Instructable was recently mentioned in some popular blogs, and is getting a bunch of new readers. Be sure to read the "comments" made by other readers and the responses to them; there's a lot of value in those comments...&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;step 1What IS a "Microcontroller" ?&lt;br /&gt;If you ever took a very introductory computer course, you probably learned about the major components of ANY computer:A Central Processing Unit or CPU. The part that actually performs logic and mathMemory. Where the computer stores data and instructionsInput and Output or I/O. How the computer…&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;step 2Show Stoppers&lt;br /&gt;There are a number design considerations that might immediately reduce your number of choices a great deal. Programability and Reprogramability: At this point in time, I would say that a hobbyist should only consider microcontrollers that have internal flash or eeprom program memory and can be …&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;step 3Thoughts about Architectures&lt;br /&gt;The "architecture" of a microcontroller refers to the philosophy of the internal implementation, sort of. It includes details like how many "registers" there are, and how "general purpose" those registers are, whether code can execute out of data memory, whether the peripherals are treated like …&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;step 4Thoughts about Hardware Tools&lt;br /&gt;Minimally, you'll need some sort of programmer to load the program into the microcontroller. These vary wildly in cost. It's pretty common for manufacturers to offer some low-cost programmer so that people can "evaluate" their microcontrollers without risking too much cash (or requiring director…&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;step 5Thoughts about Software Tools&lt;br /&gt;All of the microcontrollers mentioned here have some level of standard tools (at least an assembler) provided by the manufacturer. Most have "Integrated Development Environments" (IDE) that allow integrated use of an editor (that you won't like) with the assmebler, some compilers, and a simulato…&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;step 6The $100 Paradox&lt;br /&gt;If your budget extends as far as $100 for the computing hardware, it's worth noting that you have bought your way into an interesting realm of "bang for buck." "About" $100 will buy: - Relatively fancy development board for most micros; covering a wide range of processors and performances (incl…&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;step 7Microchip PIC Microcontrollers&lt;br /&gt;The Microchip PIC microcontrollers were perhaps the first that were marketed to the hobbyist and student community, one of the first microcontrollers to be offered in a relatively small package (18 pin DIP) and one of the first to implement flash or eeprom program memory (in the PIC16C84 in 1993)…&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;step 8Resources for Microchip PIC&lt;br /&gt;Microchip the ManufacturerPICList mailing list repository of knowlege[http://techtrain.microchip.com/masters2004/(kgmnvafutocq2355egt11231)/downloads/classlist.htm Microchip Masters Conference 2004 Downloads] Tutorials and presentations[http://techtrain.microchip.com/masters2005/(kgmnvafutocq235…&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;step 9Atmel AVR&lt;br /&gt;As near as I can tell, Atmel came along and decided to steal some of Microchip's business by offering "similar but better" chips. Some things they did right, some things they didn't do so well. But the Atmel AVR chips have also gained a lot of popularity amoung hobbyists, and we get to cash in o…&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;step 10Resources for Atmel AVR&lt;br /&gt;Atmel the ManufacturerAVR Freaks Despite the amateurish name, this is a REALLY good site.PIC vs. AVR smackdown A comparison between PIC and AVRAVR Butterfly The AVR "Butterfly" evaluation board is a phenomenal value at the current price of $20.Another Butterfly vendorGCC supports all but th…&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;step 11Intel 8051 and variants&lt;br /&gt;Intel invented the 8051 architecture a long time ago, and garnered some hobbyist interest with the 8052BASIC chip, which contained a basic interpretter in masked ROM and allowed one to build a very small BASIC based computer. Since then the architecture has been licensed and/or stolen by MANY v…&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;step 12Resources for 8051&lt;br /&gt;8052.com site Massive amounts of info.Atmel 8051s Atmel does 8051s as well as AVR and ARMNXP (Philips) 8051 89LPC controllers.RAMTron micros 8051s with FRAM non-volatile memorySilicon Labs Neat 8051s including high performance ADCs. Also the smallest 8051; 11pins in a 3x3mm QFN. Cheap US…&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;step 13Freescale (Motorola) 68HC908, HCS08&lt;br /&gt;Motorola (well, now Freescale) has several lines of popular microcontrollers, the most accessible of which seems to be the flash-based 68HC908 and/or HCS08 or RS08 (all the same or very similar architectures, with some renaming and assorted minor differences) series. Traditionally, Motorola chip…&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;step 14Texas Instrument MSP430 micropower Microcontrollers&lt;br /&gt;Texas Instruments garnered some interest when they introduced (bought?) their MSP430 series of extemely low-power microcontrollers. Until recently, most of the MSP430s were only available in assorted hobbyist-unfriendly SMT packages, but a couple of recent chips have been introduced in DIP pac…&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;step 15ARM microcontrollers&lt;br /&gt;ARM is a company that designs microprocessor architetcures, and licenses them to manufacturers who build actual chips. The ARM is a 32bit true RISC architecture, and scales upwards to CPUs with floating point hardware and clocks speeds of several hundred MHz. If you have a palmtop, it probably …&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;step 16Other Interesting Microcontrollers&lt;br /&gt;- Cypress PSOC - Renesas (Hitachi) H8, M6&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;step 17Modules, bootloaders, and "hidden" microcontrollers&lt;br /&gt;A number of companies have made a business of selling "modules" , usually incorporating some sort of microcontroller and some of its support components with a high-level-lanaguge development environment, some sort of chip-programming capability, and communications. This gets rid of the need for …&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;step 18Zilog Z8 and Z80 chips&lt;br /&gt;Zilog (inventor of the famous Z80 microprocessor chip) has updated versions of the Z80 in microcontroller form, and also updated versions of the even older Z8 architecture. Both have flash memory and some interesting peripherals , and inexpensive "evaluation boards" that include a C compiler. A…&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;step 19Win Valuable Prizes&lt;br /&gt;Periodically, many of the manufacturers of microcontrollers will sponsor "Design Contests" where engineers all over will be challenged to come up with a particularly clever design using a particular microcontroller. The idea is to entice engineers into looking at THEIR chips even if they're alre…&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;step 20Try it Online: Virtual Labs&lt;br /&gt;Tech Online is a pretty good website for technical News in general, and they've apparently implemented something they call "Virtual Labs" that will allow you to try out a vendor's development system over the internet with nothing but a browser on your end. I used this for the first time as part …&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;step 21Free Stuff!&lt;br /&gt;In the old days, companies would mail datasheets and databooks to just about anyone who asked. The web has done away with the need for most of that, and many vendors seem to have taken the money they saved on postage and used it to make their sample program more accessible.The way "free samples"…&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;sumber : http://www.instructables.com/id/How-to-choose-a-MicroController/&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-4693410158309615978?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/4693410158309615978/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/how-to-choose-microcontroller.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/4693410158309615978'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/4693410158309615978'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/how-to-choose-microcontroller.html' title='How to Choose Microcontroller'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzldQ-HeJ1I/AAAAAAAAAKM/jp7qNJJbUGE/s72-c/micro2.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-8065730370777387688</id><published>2009-12-28T17:13:00.001-08:00</published><updated>2009-12-28T17:18:44.939-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Teknology Penggerak'/><title type='text'>Medan Magnet</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzlY2U02P4I/AAAAAAAAAKE/2frdZWgiQrk/s1600-h/medan+magnet.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 104px; height: 104px;" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzlY2U02P4I/AAAAAAAAAKE/2frdZWgiQrk/s200/medan+magnet.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5420461316843650946" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Medan Magnet, dalam ilmu Fisika, adalah suatu medan yang dibentuk dengan menggerakan muatan listrik (arus listrik) yang menyebabkan munculnya gaya di muatan listrik yang bergerak lainnya. (Putaran mekanika kuantum dari satu partikel membentuk medan magnet dan putaran itu dipengaruhi oleh dirinya sendiri seperti arus listrik; inilah yang menyebabkan medan magnet dari ferromagnet "permanen"). Sebuah medan magnet adalah medan vektor: yaitu berhubungan dengan setiap titik dalam ruang vektor yang dapat berubah menurut waktu. Arah dari medan ini adalah seimbang dengan arah jarum kompas yang diletakkan di dalam medan tersebut.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Hasil kerja Maxwell telah banyak menyatukan listrik statis dengan magnetisme, yang menghasilkan sekumpulan dari empat persamaan mengenai kedua medan tersebut. Namun, di bawah formula Maxwell, masih ada dua medan yang berbeda yang menjelaskan fenomena berbeda. Einsteinlah yang berhasil menunjukan, dengan relativitas khusus, bahwa medan listrik dan medan magnet adalah dua aspek dari hal yang sama (tensor tingkat 2), dan seorang pengamat bisa merasakan gaya magnet di mana seorang pengamat bergerak hanya merasakan gaya elektrostatik. Dengan demikian, menggunakan spesial relativitas, gaya magnet adalah manifestasi dari gaya elektrostatik dari muatan listrik yang bergerak, dan bisa diprakirakan dari pengetahuan tentang gaya elektrostatik dan gerakan muatan tersebut (relatif terhadap seorang pengamat).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;sumber : wikipedia&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-8065730370777387688?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/8065730370777387688/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/medan-magnet.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/8065730370777387688'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/8065730370777387688'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/medan-magnet.html' title='Medan Magnet'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzlY2U02P4I/AAAAAAAAAKE/2frdZWgiQrk/s72-c/medan+magnet.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-6305114127415594606</id><published>2009-12-28T17:07:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2009-12-28T17:11:14.003-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Teknology Penggerak'/><title type='text'>Magnet</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzlWzfDLKFI/AAAAAAAAAJ8/YgnOv1Q1YHk/s1600-h/magnet.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 128px; height: 124px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzlWzfDLKFI/AAAAAAAAAJ8/YgnOv1Q1YHk/s200/magnet.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5420459069025232978" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Magnet atau magnit adalah suatu obyek yang mempunyai suatu medan magnet. Kata magnet (magnit) berasal dari bahasa Yunani magnítis líthos yang berarti batu Magnesian. Magnesia adalah nama sebuah wilayah di Yunani pada masa lalu yang kini bernama Manisa (sekarang berada di wilayah Turki) di mana terkandung batu magnet yang ditemukan sejak zaman dulu di wilayah tersebut.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pada saat ini, suatu magnet adalah suatu materi yang mempunyai suatu medan magnet. Materi tersebut bisa dalam berwujud magnet tetap atau magnet tidak tetap. Magnet yang sekarang ini ada hampir semuanya adalah magnet buatan.&lt;br /&gt;Magnet selalu memiliki dua kutub yaitu: kutub utara (north/ N) dan kutub selatan (south/ S). Walaupun magnet itu dipotong-potong, potongan magnet kecil tersebut akan tetap memiliki dua kutub.&lt;br /&gt;Magnet dapat menarik benda lain. Beberapa benda bahkan tertarik lebih kuat dari yang lain, yaitu bahan logam. Namun tidak semua logam mempunyai daya tarik yang sama terhadap magnet. Besi dan baja adalah dua contoh materi yang mempunyai daya tarik yang tinggi oleh magnet. Sedangkan oksigen cair adalah contoh materi yang mempunyai daya tarik yang rendah oleh magnet.&lt;br /&gt;Satuan intensitas magnet menurut sistem metrik pada Satuan Internasional (SI) adalah Tesla dan SI unit untuk total fluks magnetik adalah weber. 1 weber/m^2 = 1 tesla, yang mempengaruhi satu meter persegi.&lt;br /&gt;sumber : www.wikipedia.com&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-6305114127415594606?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/6305114127415594606/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/magnet.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/6305114127415594606'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/6305114127415594606'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/magnet.html' title='Magnet'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzlWzfDLKFI/AAAAAAAAAJ8/YgnOv1Q1YHk/s72-c/magnet.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-1478368409396331331</id><published>2009-12-26T08:46:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2009-12-26T08:51:37.133-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='PTPP'/><title type='text'>Vacum Evaporator</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzY-0NFRbmI/AAAAAAAAAJM/V1OR8tox3Xg/s1600-h/vakum+eva.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 103px; height: 130px;" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzY-0NFRbmI/AAAAAAAAAJM/V1OR8tox3Xg/s200/vakum+eva.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5419588268172865122" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Vacuum evaporators as a class function because lowering the pressure above a bulk liquid lowers the boiling points of the component liquids in it. Generally, the component liquids of interest in applications of rotary evaporation are research solvents that one desires to remove from a sample after an extraction, for instance, following a natural product isolation or a step in an organic synthesis. Use of a "rotavap" therefore allows liquid solvents to be removed without excessive heating of what are often complex and sensitive solvent-solute combinations.&lt;br /&gt;Rotary evaporation is most often and conveniently applied to separate "low boiling" solvents such a n-hexane or ethyl acetate from compounds which are solid at room temperature and pressure. However, careful application also allows removal of a solvent from a sample containing a liquid compound if there is minimal co-evaporation (azeotropic behavior), and a sufficient difference in boiling points at the chosen temperature and reduced pressure.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Solvents with higher boiling points such as water (100 °C at standard atmospheric pressure, 760 torr), dimethylformamide (DMF, 153 °C at the same), or dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO, 189 °C at the same), can also be evaporated if the unit's vacuum system is capable of sufficiently low pressure. (For instance, both DMF and DMSO will boil below 50 °C if the vacuum is reduced from 760 torr to 5 torr.) However, more recent developments are often applied in these cases (e.g., evaporation while centrifuging or vortexing at high speeds). Rotary evaporation for high boiling hydrogen bond-forming solvents such as water is often a last recourse, as other evaporation methods or freeze-drying (lyophilization) are available. This is partly due to the fact that in such solvents, the tendency to "bump" is accentuated (see below). The modern centrifugal evaporation technologies are particularly useful when one has many samples to do in parallel, as in medium- to high-throughput synthesis now expanding in industry and academia.&lt;br /&gt;Evaporation under vacuum can also, in principle, be performed using standard organic distillation glassware — i.e., without rotation of the sample. The key advantages in use of a rotary evaporator are&lt;br /&gt;that the centrifugal force and the frictional force between the wall of the rotating flask and the liquid sample result in the formation of a thin film of warm solvent being spread over a large surface.&lt;br /&gt;the forces created by the rotation suppress violent, unpredicted boiling ("bumping"). The combination of these characteristics and the conveniences built into modern rotary evaporators allow for quick, gentle evaporation of solvents from most samples, even in the hands of relatively inexperienced users. Solvent remaining after rotary evaporation can be removed by exposing the sample to even deeper vacuum, on a more tightly sealed vacuum system, at ambient or higher temperature (e.g., on a Schlenk line or in a vacuum oven).&lt;br /&gt;A key disadvantage in rotary evaporations, besides its single sample nature, is the potential of some sample types to bump, e.g. ethanol and water, which can result in loss of a portion of the material intended to be retained. Even professionals experience periodic mishaps during evaporation, especially bumping, though experienced users become aware of the propensity of some mixtures to bump or foam, and apply precautions that help to avoid most such events. In particular, bumping can often be prevented by taking homogeneous phases into the evaporation, by carefully regulating the strength of the vacuum (or the bath temperature) to provide for an even rate of evaporation, or, in rare cases, through use of added agents such as boiling chips (to make the nucleation step of evaporation more uniform). Rotary evaporators can also be equipped with further special traps and condenser arrays that are best suited to particular difficult sample types, including those with the tendency to foam or bump.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;sumber : www.wikipedia.com&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-1478368409396331331?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/1478368409396331331/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/vacum-evaporator.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/1478368409396331331'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/1478368409396331331'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/vacum-evaporator.html' title='Vacum Evaporator'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzY-0NFRbmI/AAAAAAAAAJM/V1OR8tox3Xg/s72-c/vakum+eva.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-2627541519266207640</id><published>2009-12-26T08:42:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2009-12-26T08:45:35.301-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='PTPP'/><title type='text'>Rotary Evaporator</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzY9U6bcTpI/AAAAAAAAAJE/K4DjCIcwIB0/s1600-h/200px-Rotavapor.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 135px; height: 200px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzY9U6bcTpI/AAAAAAAAAJE/K4DjCIcwIB0/s200/200px-Rotavapor.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5419586631078006418" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A rotary evaporator (or rotavap)[1] is a device used in chemical laboratories for the efficient and gentle removal of solvents from samples by evaporation. When referenced in the chemistry research literature, description of the use of this technique and equipment may include the phrase "rotary evaporator", though use is often rather signaled by other language (e.g., "the sample was evaporated under reduced pressure").&lt;br /&gt;A simple rotary evaporator system was invented by Lyman C. Craig.[2] It was first commercialized by the Swiss company Büchi in 1957,[3] and patented in 1964.[4] The Büchi Rotavapor continues to be the most widely used rotary evaporator, so much so that "Rotavap" has become a synonym for such instruments. Other rotary evaporator manufacturers include Heidolph, Yamato, IKA, Stuart, EYELA and INGOS. The most common form is the bench-top unit, though large scale (e.g., 20L-50L) versions are available and are used in pilot plants in commercial chemical operations.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Design of Rotary Evaporator&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The main components of a modern rotary evaporator are:&lt;br /&gt;a motor unit which rotates the evaporation flask or vial containing one's sample.&lt;br /&gt;a vapor duct which acts both as the axis for sample rotation, and as vacuum-tight conduit for the vapor being drawn off of the sample.&lt;br /&gt;a vacuum system, to substantially reduce the pressure within the evaporator system.&lt;br /&gt;a heated fluid bath, generally water, to heat the sample being evaporated.&lt;br /&gt;a condenser with either a coil through which coolant passes, or a "cold finger" into which coolant mixtures like dry ice and acetone are placed.&lt;br /&gt;a condensate-collecting flask at the bottom of the condenser, to catch the distilling solvent after it re-condenses.&lt;br /&gt;a mechanical or motorized mechanism to quickly lift the evaporation flask from the heating bath.&lt;br /&gt;The vacuum system used with rotary evaporators can be as simple as a water aspirator with a trap immersed in a cold bath (for non-toxic solvents), or as complex as a regulated mechanical vacuum pump with refrigerated trap. Glassware used in the vapor stream and condenser can be simple or complex, depending upon the goals of the evaporation, and any propensities the dissolved compounds might give to the mixture (e.g., to foam or "bump", see below). Various commercial instruments are available that include the basic features, and various designs of traps are manufactured to insert between the evaporation flask and the vapor duct. In addition, modern equipment often adds features such as digital control of vacuum, digital display of temperature and rotational speed, and even vapor temperature sensing.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;sumber :www.wikipedia.com&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-2627541519266207640?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/2627541519266207640/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/rotary-evaporator.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/2627541519266207640'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/2627541519266207640'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/rotary-evaporator.html' title='Rotary Evaporator'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzY9U6bcTpI/AAAAAAAAAJE/K4DjCIcwIB0/s72-c/200px-Rotavapor.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-480195199222539110</id><published>2009-12-25T17:10:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2009-12-25T18:09:41.663-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='PPMA'/><title type='text'>Potensi Pengembangan Minyak Nilam di Indonesia</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzVv_UmDHeI/AAAAAAAAAIk/P0PBd-Agf7E/s1600-h/nilamw.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 96px; height: 104px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzVv_UmDHeI/AAAAAAAAAIk/P0PBd-Agf7E/s200/nilamw.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5419360860260998626" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Indonesia sejak era tahun 60-an dikenal sebagai negara penghasil minyak atsiri terbesar di dunia terutama minyak atsiri nilam dan hingga sekarang minyak atsiri nilam dari Indonesia masih sangat dikenal di pasar dunia. &lt;br /&gt;Produk ini mempunyai orientasi export. Minyak atsiri nilam digunakan di industri parfum sebagai zat pengikat aroma dan perannya belum mampu digantikan oleh zat sintetis, sehingga kebutuhan minyak atsiri nilam di dunia besar sekali.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Nilam (Pogostemon cablin Benth) yang termasuk dalam keluarga Labiatea merupakan salah satu tanaman penghasil minyak atsiri yang penting bagi Indonesia, karena minyak yang dihasilkan merupakan komoditas ekspor yang cukup mendatangkan devisa negara. Sebagai komoditas ekspor minyak nilam mempunyai prospek yang baik, karena dibutuhkan secara kontinyu dalam industri kosmetik, parfum, sabun dan lain-lain. Dibandingkan dengan tanaman penghasil minyak atsiri lainnya (Indonesia memiliki sekitar 200 species tanaman yang menghasilkan minyak atsiri), nilam mempunyai keunggulan tersendiri sebagai unsur pengikat (fikatif) yang terbaik untuk wewangian (parfum). Hal ini disebabkan karena daya lekatnya yang kuat sehingga aroma wangi tidak mudah hilang karena tercuci atau menguap, dapat larut dalam alkohol dan dapat dicampur dengan minyak esteris lainnya.&lt;br /&gt;Nilam adalah tanaman yang berumur produktif selama 1-2 tahun. Panen pertama dapat dilakukan pada umur 6-8 bulan setelah tanam, dan panen selanjutnya dilakukan setiap 3-4 bulan sekali. Setelah 1,5 tahun tanaman nilam memerlukan peremajaan. Di Indonesia hingga kini terdapat tiga jenis nilam yang sudah dikembangkan yaitu Pogostemon cablin Benth, Pogostemon heyneanus Benth, don Pogostemon hortensis Benth. Pogostemon cablin Benth dikenal sebagai nilam Aceh karena banyak diusahakan di daerah itu. Nilam jenis ini tidak berbunga, daun berbulu halus dengan kadar minyak 2,5-5,0%. Pogostemon heyneanus Benth dikenal dengan nama nilam Jawa, tanaman berbunga, daun tipis dan kadar minyak rendah, berkisar antara 0,5-1,5%. Pogostemon hortensis Benth mirip nilam Jawa tetapi juga tidak berbunga, dapat ditemukan di daerah Banten dan sering disebut sebagai nilam sabun. &lt;br /&gt;Ada tiga jenis tanaman nilam yaitu nilam Aceh (Pogostemon cablin), nilam Jawa (Pogostemon hortensis) dan nilam tipis (Pogostemon heyneanus). Di antara ketiga jenis ini, nilam Aceh adalah yang terbaik, karena memiliki kadar atsiri tertinggi yakni 2,5%- 5%, sedang jenis lain hanya 0,5%. Disebut nilam Aceh sekaligus menunjukkan bahwa yang menjadi sentra produksi minyak nilam di Indonesia, memang Daerah Istimewa Nangroe Aceh Darussalam, di samping Sumatera Utara dan Sumatera Barat, lebih dari 80% minyak nilam di Indonesia dihasilkan dari ketiga propinsi tersebut.&lt;br /&gt;Seluruh bagian tanaman ini mengandung minyak atsiri, namun kandungan minyak terbesar pada daunnya. Di pasar intemasional minyak - nilam dikenal dengan nama "Patchouli oil". Hasil tanaman nilam adalah minyak yang didapat dengan cara menyuling batang dan daunnya, belum ada senyawa sintetis yang mampu menggantikan peran minyak nilam dalam industri parfum dan kosmetika. &lt;br /&gt;Dalam dunia perdagangan dikenal dua macam nilam yaitu "Folia patchouly naturalis" (sebagai insectisida) dan "depurata" (sebagai minyak atsiri). Minyak atsiri merupakan salah satu komoditas ekspor Indonesia yang bahan bakunya berasal dari berbagai jenis tanaman perkebunan. Minyak atsiri dari kelompok tanaman tahunan perkebunan antara lain berasal dari cengkeh, pala, lada, kayu manis, sementara yang berasal dari kelompok tanaman semusim perkebunan berasal dari tanaman nilam, sereh wangi, akar wangi dan jahe. Hingga kini minyak atsiri yang berasal dari tanaman nilam memiliki pangsa pasar ekspor paling besar andilnya dalam perdagangan Indonesia yaitu mencapai 60 persen. &lt;br /&gt;Minyak nilam merupakan produk yang terbesar untuk minyak atsiri dan pemakaiannya di dunia menunjukkan kecenderungan yang semakin meningkat. Dapat dikatakan bahwa hingga saat ini belum ada produk apapun baik alami maupun sintetis yang dapat menggantikan minyak nilam dalam posisinya sebagai fixative. &lt;br /&gt;Data ekspor BPS menunjukkan bahwa kontribusi minyak nilam (Patchouli oil) terhadap pendapatan ekspor minyak atsiri sekitar 60%, minyak akar wangi (Vetiner oil) sekitar 12,47%, minyak serai wangi (Citronella oil) sekitar 6,89%, dan minyak jahe (Ginger oil) sekitar 2,74%. Rata-rata nilai devisa yang diperoleh dari ekspor minyak atsiri selama sepuluh tahun terakhir cenderung meningkat dari US$ 10 juta pada tahun 1991 menjadi sekitar US$ 50-70 dalam tahun 2001, 2002 dan 2003, dengan nilai rata-rata/kg sebesar US$ 13,13. Walaupun secara makro nilai ekspor ini kelihatannya kecil namun secara mikro mampu meningkatkan kesejahteraan petani di pedesaan yang pada gilirannya diharapkan dapat mengurangi gejolak sosial.&lt;br /&gt;Minyak atsiri sebagai bahan baku penambah aroma, parfum dan farmasi memang banyak diminta. Menurut Data Badan Pengembangan Ekspor Nasional pada tahun 2002 rata-rata ekspor minyak atsiri untuk 5 (lima) tahun terakhir mencapai US$ 51,9 juta dengan 77 negara tujuan ekspor. Singapura dan Amerika Serikat adalah penyerap tersebar ekspor minyak atsiri Indonesia masing-masing adalah penyumbang devisa negara US$ 20 per tahun dan US$ 10 juta per tahun. Dari ekspor tersebut minyak nilam mempunyai permintaan sebesar 60 % Nilam termasuk komoditas unggulan nasional dengan luas 9.600 ha dan produksi sebesar 2.100 ton minyak. Berdasarkan data yang diberikan oleh seorang eksportir minyak nilam, kebutuhan minyak nilam dunia berkisar antara 1.100-1.200 ton/ tahun, sedangkan pasokan ini dapat dihasilkan minyak nilam melalui penyulingan daun dan tangkai daun. &lt;br /&gt;Kendala-kendala dalam agribisnis nilam antara lain budidaya yang belum sempurna, bahan tanaman yang kurang sesuai, panen, penanganan bahan dan penyulingan yang kurang baik mengakibatkan produktivitasnya rendah. Faktor lain adalah kekeringan (iklim) dan fluktuasi harga. Kekeringan selain karena kemarau panjang juga disebabkan fenomena alam yaitu dikenal dengan El Nino. Nilam sangat peka terhadap kekeringan, kemarau panjang setelah pemangkasan dapat menyebabkan tanaman mati. Suhu yang dikehendaki sekitar 24-28°( dengan kelembaban relatif lebih dari 75% dan intensitas radiasi. surya 75-100%.&lt;br /&gt;Balittro telah mengoleksi ± 100 aksesi nilam yang diperoleh dari hasil eksplorasi, somaklonal dan fusi protoplas antara nilam Jawa dan nilam Aceh. Dari beberapa nomor ekplorasi telah diseleksi dan diperoleh 4 klon harapan yang berkadar minyak relatif tinggi (&gt; 2,5%) dan kadar patchouli alkohol &gt; 30%. Klon-klon harapan tersebut adalah : Cisaroni, Lhokseumawe 2, Sidikalang dan Tapak Tuan.&lt;br /&gt;Selain nilam, komoditas yang bisa diambil minyak atsirinya antara lain : daun cengkeh, bunga melati, serei dan lain-lain. Minyak atsiri dari komoditas ini digunakan untuk bahan di industri farmasi dan di manfaatkan untuk aroma terapi. &lt;br /&gt;Pangsa minyak atsiri Indonesia di pasar internasional mencapai 80 %.  Permasalahan utama adalah mutu minyak sebagai akibat dari prosesing yang tidak sepenuhnya memenuhi standar, antara lain penggunaan alat penyuling tradisional.    Untuk mengatasi permasalahan tersebut, teknologi yang tersedia adalah alat penyuling tipe Balittro dengan design baru dari stainless steel, pendingin dan pemisah minyak, hemat bahan bakar. Khusus nilam, daerah pengembangan potensial meliputi : Aceh, Sumatera Barat, Bengkulu. Nilai ekspor  per tahun mencapai US $ 74,26 juta. &lt;br /&gt;Dari beberapa jenis minyak tersebut minyak nilam memiliki potensi strategis untuk dikembangkan, mengingat di pasar dunia membutuhkan 1.200 - 1.400 ton minyak nilam setiap tahun dan volume itu cenderung terus meningkat, sementara produksi yang tersedia baru mencapai 1.000 ton per tahun. Harga di pasar lokal berkisar Rp 250.000 per kilogram. Dalam 10 tahun terakhir ini, peningkatan volume ekspor komoditi ini cukup tajam, yakni sekitar 6 % per tahun. Indonesia memasok sekitar 90% kebutuhan minyak nilam dunia (Direktorat Neraca .Produksi BPS: 2002). &lt;br /&gt;Harga minyak nilam di pasar lokal (di tingkat agen eksportir) berkisar Rp 200.000 - Rp 250.000 per kg. Importir minyak nilam terbesar saat ini adalah Amerika Serikat (lebih 200 ton per tahun), disusul lima negara Eropa, masing-masing Inggris (45-60 ton/th), Perancis, Swiss (40-50 ton/th), Jerman (35-40 ton/th) dan Belanda (30 ton/th). Beberapa eksportir minyak nilam mengaku masih kesulitan memenuhi pesanan minyak nilam yang datang dari mancanegara. PT Jasu-Lawangi, eksportir minyak atsiri terbesar di Indonesia baru bisa memasok 50 ton atau sekitar 10% dari permintaan. Permintaan cukup besar juga datang dari India, Belgia, Jepang, dan Singapura. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-480195199222539110?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/480195199222539110/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/potensi-pengembangan-minyak-nilam-di.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/480195199222539110'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/480195199222539110'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/potensi-pengembangan-minyak-nilam-di.html' title='Potensi Pengembangan Minyak Nilam di Indonesia'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzVv_UmDHeI/AAAAAAAAAIk/P0PBd-Agf7E/s72-c/nilamw.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-7952844510616555590</id><published>2009-12-24T22:19:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2010-01-14T23:50:47.046-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='essential oils'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='minyak atsiri'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='PPMA'/><title type='text'>Peluang Pengembangan Minyak Melati (Jasmine Oil)</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzRaSWw1mKI/AAAAAAAAAIU/fa6TAXjzelA/s1600-h/melati.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 116px; height: 107px;" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzRaSWw1mKI/AAAAAAAAAIU/fa6TAXjzelA/s200/melati.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5419055523028113570" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Minyak bunga melati mempunyai prospek yang cerah. Baik melati putih maupun melati gambir dapat menghasilkan minyak dengan wangi yang khas dan telah populer di bursa produk wewangian. Harganya pun cukup mencengangkan, sekitar US$ 5.000 per liter. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Di Indonesia terdapat dua jenis bunga melati yang sejak lama dibudidayakan oleh masyarakat. Pertama, melati putih (Jasminum sambac), banyak ditanam di daerah pantai dan dataran rendah panas dan kering, dengan bunga berwarna putih dan harum&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Melati jenis ini digunakan untuk bunga tabur, bunga rampai, rangkaian bunga untuk pesta perkawinan, dan khusus untuk daerah Jawa Tengah juga digunakan dalam pembuatan teh wangi melati (Jasmine tea). Sejak tahun 1990-an, bunga melati putih segar produksi Tegal, Jawa Tengah, telah diekspor ke Singapura untuk memenuhi permintaan bunga sesaji/keperluan keagamaan. Kedua, melati gambir (Jasminum officinale), saat ini banyak ditanam di daerah Purbalingga dan Batang di Jawa Tengah untuk memenuhi kebutuhan pabrik teh. Dalam pembuatan teh wangi, dua macam bunga melati tersebut dicampur pada perbandingan tertentu dengan daun teh untuk mendapatkan wangi yang spesial. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Saat ini, daerah pertanaman melati yang cukup luas adalah di Jawa Tengah. Areal tanaman melati putih sekitar 317 ha dan melati gambir 390 ha, sedangkan di Jawa Timur dan Jawa Barat masing-masing 45 ha dan 17 ha, seperti dikemukakan Sutater dan Effendie dalam laporan survai tahun 1994. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Potensi melati untuk usaha agribisnis cukup besar, memiliki rata-rata produksi per hektar per hari sekitar 16,2 kg dengan kisaran 5-20 kg. Fluktuasi produksi bunga agak besar karena sangat dipengaruhi oleh curah hujan. Di sentra produksi pada musim panen besar (musim hujan), sering kali bunga melati tidak terserap oleh pabrik teh sehingga harga bunga turun. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Di sisi lain, saat ini kebutuhan minyak bunga alami termasuk melati untuk keperluan industri kosmetik, farmasi, minyak wangi, sabun, industri jamu, dan terapi aroma masih belum dapat dipenuhi produksi dalam negeri sehingga harus diimpor. Khusus untuk keperluan terapi aroma sebagai bagian dari perawatan kebugaran, minyak melati mempunyai peran yang sangat penting. Menurut Herbal Encyclopedia, aroma melati mampu menimbulkan efek relaksasi, menghilangkan ketegangan pikiran/depresi, dan memberi kesan tenang (calm). Karena khasiat itulah, barangkali nenek moyang kita menggunakan melati sebagai bunga pengantin. Apakah tidak mungkin dua sisi potensi dan peluang ini dipertemukan? &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Jika bunga diproses menjadi minyak melati, untuk menghasilkannya diperlukan bahan baku dan teknologi yang tepat. Dari sisi bahan baku yaitu bunga melati, seperti bunga-bunga penghasil minyak wangi alami lainnya, hasil minyak bunga melati tergolong rendah. Di India, ekstraksi melati gambir menghasilkan concrete 0,28%, yang jika diproses lanjut akan memperoleh absolut atau minyak kurang lebih 50 persennya. Namun, hasil ini masih lebih tinggi dibanding ekstraksi bunga sedap malam yang hanya menghasilkan minyak 0,068-0,105%. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Teknologi &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Teknologi untuk menghasilkan minyak bunga melati telah diteliti oleh Balai Penelitian Tanaman Hias yang kemudian dilanjutkan oleh Balai Penelitian Pascapanen Pertanian. Dua teknik produksi minyak bunga melati telah dicoba, yaitu ekstraksi menggunakan pelarut menguap dan enfleurasi atau enfleurage. Masing-masing teknik memiliki kelebihan dan kelemahan. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Enfleurasi merupakan suatu teknik menghasilkan minyak bunga dengan cara menangkap minyak bunga yang menguap dari kuntum bunga yang merekah menggunakan campuran lemak. Selanjutnya, minyak bunga dipisahkan dari campuran lemak dengan melarutkannya dalam alkohol dilanjutkan dengan penguapan alkohol hingga diperoleh minyak bunga alami. Keunggulan cara ini adalah mampu menghasilkan minyak bunga dengan jumlah dan mutu yang tinggi, karena selama proses tidak banyak bersentuhan dengan panas sehingga kehilangan dan kerusakan zat wangi sangat rendah. Kelemahannya, teknik ini menyisakan limbah lemak yang perlu dicarikan cara pemanfaatannya, dan perlu tenaga terampil untuk pekerjaan defleurasi atau mengangkat kuntum-kuntum bunga layu dari lapisan campuran lemak setelah proses penyerapan/penangkapan minyak. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Cara lainnya yaitu ekstraksi dengan menggunakan pelarut menguap, yang mempunyai keuntungan mudah dikembangkan untuk industri dan pelarut dapat diperoleh kembali dari rangkaian proses. Kelemahannya, selama proses ekstraksi harus mampu mengendalikan suhu agar tidak lebih dari 55oC, kalau bisa sekitar 45oC, karena suhu yang lebih tinggi akan merusak komponen zat wangi. Namun, secara teknis kelemahan ini mudah diatasi, yaitu pada saat penguapan pelarut diberikan kondisi vakum tertentu untuk menurunkan suhu. Karena mudah rusak oleh temperatur tinggi itu pula minyak bunga melati kurang baik mutunya jika dihasilkan melalui penyulingan dengan air/uap panas. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Proses Menghasilkan Minyak Bunga Melalui Ekstraksi dengan Pelarut Menguap &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Untuk mendapatkan minyak bunga melati diperlukan rangkaian proses, seperti perendaman sambil diaduk untuk memberi kesempatan kontak antara pelarut dan bahan, penguapan, dan destilasi. Untuk mendukung proses tersebut diperlukan beberapa peralatan yaitu leaching apparatus, evaporator, destiller, dan evaporator vakum berputar. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Leaching apparatus berupa tangki tertutup sebagai wadah perendaman bunga, yang dilengkapi pengaduk, lubang pemasukan bahan dan lubang pengeluaran cairan/ampas. Bunga melati dimasukkan ke dalam tangki, ditambahkan heksan, kemudian ditutup dan pengaduk dijalankan pada kecepatan 20 putaran per menit. Daya muat alat ini sekitar 3 kg bunga yang memerlukan 6,4 liter heksan. Setelah 20 menit, cairan yang sudah mengandung wangi melati dikeluarkan, ampas dipisahkan, kemudian cairan dimasukkan ke dalam evaporator. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Tahapan berikutnya yaitu penguapan heksan pada suhu di bawah 55oC, dilanjutkan dengan pengembunan untuk mendapatkan kembali heksan cair sekitar 75%. Sisa cairan heksan 25% diuapkan lebih lanjut dengan menggunakan evaporator vakum berputar sampai diperoleh pasta pekat, berwarna coklat kemerahan, agak lengket karena masih mengandung lilin, dengan bau wangi melati yang kuat. Pasta ini disebut concrete. Meskipun masih merupakan produk antara, concrete sudah dapat diperdagangkan dan mempunyai keuntungan zat wanginya tidak mudah menguap karena masih terikat dengan komponen lilin. Untuk menjadi minyak melati yang dapat digunakan sebagai bahan minyak wangi atau kosmetik, dilakukan proses lanjutannya. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Proses berikutnya yaitu memisahkan komponen minyak melati dari lilin, pigmen, dan protein yang terkandung dalam concrete sehingga diperoleh minyak yang harum seperti bunga aslinya atau dikenal dengan absolut melati. Cara pengambilan minyak melati dari concrete adalah dengan melarutkannya ke dalam alkohol, kemudian dilakukan pemisahan melalui pendinginan dan penyaringan. Proses ini dikerjakan berulang kali hingga diperoleh cairan jernih tanpa lilin. Tahap akhir adalah penguapan alkohol menggunakan evaporator vakum berputar untuk memperoleh absolut. Absolut berwarna kuning kecoklatan, jernih dengan bau melati sangat kuat. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Prospek Pengembangan &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Menilik potensi dan peluangnya, pengolahan bunga melati menjadi minyak merupakan peluang pengembangan produk baru hasil industri berbasis bunga, sekaligus sebagai diversifikasi manfaat melati. Pengembangan produk ini akan membuka lapangan kerja tambahan bagi pelaku pascapanen melati yang saat ini hanya sebatas melakukan panen dan mengangkutnya ke pabrik teh. Pada gilirannya, bila ada investor, usaha ini akan menambah pendapatan daerah setempat. Untuk mencapainya, kajian teknologi dan kelayakan finansialnya perlu dilakukan pada skala yang lebih besar dengan melibatkan petani, mitra swasta, dan pemerintah daerah/Dinas di wilayah penghasil melati terutama Jawa Tengah. Namun, karena proses pengolahan melati belum dikenal masyarakat, diperlukan beberapa tahapan kajian yang ditangani oleh tim lintas disiplin dan institusi. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Selain untuk melati, teknologi yang sama dapat diterapkan pada jenis bunga harum lainnya, seperti sedap malam dan mawar, sehingga tidak tergantung pada satu jenis bahan baku (Sulusi Prabawati, Suyanti dan Astu Unadi)&lt;br /&gt;sumber : http://www.scribd.com/doc/887208/Prospek-Pengembangan-Melati&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-7952844510616555590?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/7952844510616555590/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/peluang-pengembangan-minyak-melati.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/7952844510616555590'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/7952844510616555590'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/peluang-pengembangan-minyak-melati.html' title='Peluang Pengembangan Minyak Melati (Jasmine Oil)'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzRaSWw1mKI/AAAAAAAAAIU/fa6TAXjzelA/s72-c/melati.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-3293762743374426244</id><published>2009-12-24T19:37:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2009-12-24T19:54:27.310-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Teknology Penggerak'/><title type='text'>Pneumatc Actuator</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzQ249vVCMI/AAAAAAAAAIM/tA3VU6PpuiA/s1600-h/pneumatic.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 149px; height: 84px;" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzQ249vVCMI/AAAAAAAAAIM/tA3VU6PpuiA/s200/pneumatic.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5419016603907197122" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A pneumatic actuator converts energy (in the form of compressed air, typically) into motion. The motion can be rotary or linear, depending on the type of actuator. Some types of pneumatic actuators include:&lt;br /&gt;a. Tie rod cylinders&lt;br /&gt;b. Rotary actuators&lt;br /&gt;c. Grippers&lt;br /&gt;d. Rodless actuators with magnetic linkage or rotary cylinders&lt;br /&gt;e. Rodless actuators with mechanical linkage&lt;br /&gt;f. Pneumatic artificial muscles&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;g. Speciality actuators that combine rotary and linear motion—frequently used for clamping operations&lt;br /&gt;h. Vacuum generators&lt;br /&gt;A Pneumatic actuator mainly consists of a piston, a cylinder, and valves or ports. The piston is covered by a diaphragm, or seal, which keeps the air in the upper portion of the cylinder, allowing air pressure to force the diaphragm downward, moving the piston underneath, which in turn moves the valve stem, which is linked to the internal parts of the actuator. Pneumatic actuators may only have one spot for a signal input, top or bottom, depending on action required. Valves require little pressure to operate and usually double or triple the input force. The larger the size of the piston, the larger the output pressure can be. Having a larger piston can also be good if air supply is low, allowing the same forces with less input. These pressures are large enough to crush object in the pipe. On 100 kPa input, you could lift a small car (upwards 1,000 lbs) easily, and this is only a basic, small pneumatic valve. However, the resulting forces required of the stem would be too great and cause the valve stem to fail.&lt;br /&gt;This pressure is transferred to the valve stem, which is hooked up to either the valve plug (see plug valve), butterfly valve etc. Larger forces are required in high pressure or high flow pipelines to allow the valve to overcome these forces, and allow it to move the valves moving parts to control the material flowing inside.&lt;br /&gt;Valves input pressure is the "control signal." This can come from a variety of measuring devices, and each different pressure is a different set point for a valve. A typical standard signal is 20–100 kPa. For example, a valve could be controlling the pressure in a vessel which has a constant out-flow, and a varied in-flow (varied by the actuator and valve). A pressure transmitter will monitor the pressure in the vessel and transmit a signal from 20–100 kPa. 20 kPa means there is no pressure, 100 kPa means there is full range pressure (can be varied by the transmiters calibration points). As the pressure rises in the vessel, the output of the transmitter rises, this increase in pressure is sent to the valve, which causes the valve to stroke downard, and start closing the valve, decreasing flow into the vessel, reducing the pressure in the vessel as excess pressure is evacuated through the out flow. This is called a direct acting process.&lt;br /&gt;sumber : www.wikipedia.com&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-3293762743374426244?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/3293762743374426244/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/pneumatc-actuator.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/3293762743374426244'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/3293762743374426244'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/pneumatc-actuator.html' title='Pneumatc Actuator'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzQ249vVCMI/AAAAAAAAAIM/tA3VU6PpuiA/s72-c/pneumatic.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-8668708380594250793</id><published>2009-12-23T19:32:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2009-12-23T19:44:08.682-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='PTPP'/><title type='text'>Choise A good Water Pump</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzLjcxCHicI/AAAAAAAAAIE/BODtpVM8QWk/s1600-h/pompa-air-300x261.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 200px; height: 174px;" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzLjcxCHicI/AAAAAAAAAIE/BODtpVM8QWk/s200/pompa-air-300x261.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5418643385018190274" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A pump is a device used to move fluids, such as liquids or slurries, or gases. A pump displaces a volume by physical or mechanical action. One common misconception about pumps is the thought that they create pressure. Pumps alone do not create pressure; they only displace fluid, causing a flow. Adding resistance to flow causes pressure. Pumps fall into five major groups: direct lift, displacement, velocity, buoyancy and gravity pumps.[1] Their names describe the method for moving a fluid.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;We need Water pumps besause Water pumps are a useful tool for a variety of residential, light commercial and&lt;br /&gt;agricultural tasks. A water pump is ideal for:&lt;br /&gt;1. Draining water from a basement.&lt;br /&gt;2. Draining and filling your swimming pool, pond, or hot tub.&lt;br /&gt;3. Draining shallow flooded areas.&lt;br /&gt;4. Irrigation purposes for agricultural or lawn sprinkling.&lt;br /&gt;5. Distributing fertilizers and pesticides.&lt;br /&gt;6. Various other tasks including construction purposes.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Then, How Do we choose the right Water Pump for my NeeDs? &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;When shopping for a water pump there are various items to consider. All&lt;br /&gt;water pumps are measured in discharge capacity (GPM), vertical suction lift,&lt;br /&gt;and maximum head lift.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;GPM Discharge Capacity is the rate of speed that water flows from the source&lt;br /&gt;to the discharge point, measured in gallons per minute. It provides the power&lt;br /&gt;to move water quickly.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Vertical Suction Lift is the vertical distance from the water source to the&lt;br /&gt;pump. This is important for draining a basement or deep pond.&lt;br /&gt;Maximum Head Lift is the total height from the source of the water to the&lt;br /&gt;destination or drainage point. This provides the power to move water over&lt;br /&gt;a distance&lt;br /&gt;8 BRIGGSandSTRATTON.COM&lt;br /&gt;) 414.259.5333&lt;br /&gt;WATER PUMP&lt;br /&gt;Why Do you NeeD a Water PumP?&lt;br /&gt;Water pumps are a useful tool for a variety of residential, light commercial and&lt;br /&gt;agricultural tasks. A water pump is ideal for:&lt;br /&gt;Draining water from a basement.&lt;br /&gt;Draining and filling your swimming pool, pond, or hot tub.&lt;br /&gt;Draining shallow flooded areas.&lt;br /&gt;Irrigation purposes for agricultural or lawn sprinkling.&lt;br /&gt;Distributing fertilizers and pesticides.&lt;br /&gt;Various other tasks including construction purposes.&lt;br /&gt;hoW Do I choose the rIght Water PumP for&lt;br /&gt;my NeeDs?&lt;br /&gt;When shopping for a water pump there are various items to consider. All&lt;br /&gt;water pumps are measured in discharge capacity (GPM), vertical suction lift,&lt;br /&gt;and maximum head lift.&lt;br /&gt;GPM Discharge Capacity is the rate of speed that water flows from the source&lt;br /&gt;to the discharge point, measured in gallons per minute. It provides the power&lt;br /&gt;to move water quickly.&lt;br /&gt;Vertical Suction Lift is the vertical distance from the water source to the&lt;br /&gt;pump. This is important for draining a basement or deep pond.&lt;br /&gt;Maximum Head Lift is the total height from the source of the water to the&lt;br /&gt;destination or drainage point. This provides the power to move water over&lt;br /&gt;a distance&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-weight:bold;"&gt;Types of PumPs are avaIlable&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Transfer/Clear Water Pumps&lt;br /&gt;Transfer pumps are ideal for draining your hot tub or garden pond. In&lt;br /&gt;addition, they can be used to drain shallow flooded areas and for lawn&lt;br /&gt;sprinkling. These types of pumps are made for clear water pumping and&lt;br /&gt;should be free of debris; although they can handle small solids up to .25 inch.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Semi-Solid Pumps&lt;br /&gt;Semi-solid pumps tend to have similar characteristics to transfer pumps&lt;br /&gt;except that they are able to handle small solids of .25 to .75 inch. Semi-solid&lt;br /&gt;pumps are best suited for draining your pool or removing water from your&lt;br /&gt;basement.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Trash Pumps&lt;br /&gt;Trash pumps are able to pass solids from .75 to 2 inches and are used for&lt;br /&gt;commercial and agricultural use. Typically these pumps are used for&lt;br /&gt;irrigation, to drain small flooded areas or utilized on a construction site.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;High-Pressure Pumps&lt;br /&gt;High-pressure pumps are designed to provide higher pressure at lower&lt;br /&gt;volumes. This is ideal for agricultural and hobby farm markets due to this type&lt;br /&gt;of pump’s ability to move water over long distances&lt;br /&gt;   &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-8668708380594250793?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/8668708380594250793/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/choise-good-water-pump.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/8668708380594250793'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/8668708380594250793'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/choise-good-water-pump.html' title='Choise A good Water Pump'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzLjcxCHicI/AAAAAAAAAIE/BODtpVM8QWk/s72-c/pompa-air-300x261.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-7560389962289026024</id><published>2009-12-23T17:05:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2009-12-23T17:13:17.384-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Otomation Technology'/><title type='text'>Microcontroller</title><content type='html'>&lt;a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzK_8xTa3vI/AAAAAAAAAH0/Qyjm6yWB7xw/s1600-h/microcontroller.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 144px; height: 108px;" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzK_8xTa3vI/AAAAAAAAAH0/Qyjm6yWB7xw/s200/microcontroller.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5418604352427974386" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A microcontroller (also microcontroller unit, MCU or µC) is a small computer on a single integrated circuit consisting of a relatively simple CPU combined with support functions such as a crystal oscillator, timers, watchdog timer, serial and analog I/O etc. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for small or dedicated applications. Thus, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers and other high-performance or general purpose applications, simplicity is emphasized. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Some microcontrollers may operate at clock rate frequencies as low as 4 kHz, as this is adequate for many typical applications, enabling low power consumption (milliwatts or microwatts). They will generally have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or other interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be just nanowatts, making many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications. Other microcontrollers may serve performance-critical roles, where they may need to act more like a digital signal processor (DSP), with higher clock speeds and power consumption.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as automobile engine control systems, remote controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, and toys. By reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to control non-digital electronic systems.&lt;br /&gt;articel source : wikipedia.com&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-7560389962289026024?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/7560389962289026024/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/microcontroller.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/7560389962289026024'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/7560389962289026024'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/microcontroller.html' title='Microcontroller'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzK_8xTa3vI/AAAAAAAAAH0/Qyjm6yWB7xw/s72-c/microcontroller.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-5847046310701090031</id><published>2009-12-22T18:23:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2009-12-22T18:35:47.356-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Beneficiation'/><title type='text'>Making Biogas From Human Waste ? Why not</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzGB2xiavtI/AAAAAAAAAHs/AtEiqs0OZII/s1600-h/biogas.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 133px; height: 95px;" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzGB2xiavtI/AAAAAAAAAHs/AtEiqs0OZII/s200/biogas.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5418254604714032850" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Biogas is generated when bacteria degrade biological material in the absence of oxygen, in a process known as anaerobic digestion. Since biogas is a mixture of methane (also known as marsh gas or natural gas, CH4) and carbon dioxide it is a renewable fuel produced from waste treatment. Anaerobic digestion is basically a simple process carried out in a number of steps that can use almost any organic material as a substrate - it occurs in digestive systems, marshes, rubbish dumps, septic tanks and the Arctic Tundra. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Humans tend to make the process as complicated as possible by trying to improve on nature in complex machines but a simple approach is still possible, as I hope you see in some of the links below. As methane is very hard to compress I see its best use as for stationary fuel, rather than mobile fuel. It takes a lot of energy to compress the gas (this energy is usually just wasted), plus you have the hazard of high pressure. A variable volume storage (flexible bag or floating drum are the two main variants) is much easier and cheaper to arrange than high pressure cylinders, regulators and compressors.&lt;br /&gt;Human Waste as a Resource&lt;br /&gt;Treating human waste through Anaerobic Digestion is an incredibly ethical sanitation technology. Anaerobic Digestion occurs in biodigesters and produces a fuel (biogas), removes Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) from sewage, conserves nutrients (especially nitrogen compounds) and most importantly reduces pathogens. Human waste damages the environment because it is loaded with BOD, nutrients, and anthropozoonotic diseases. This can cause a host of environmental problems that can lead to ecosystem collapse such as rendering a water body uninhabitable for many organisms. Untreated sewage causes algal blooms, red tide, and so called dead zones. Humans also suffer from untreated sewage (also called black water). Waterborne disease transmitted through human excrement is a leading cause of death worldwide, especially in the so-called developing world. Some diseases caused by untreated human sewage are Cholera, Typhoid fever, Paratyphoid fever, Salmonella, Dysentery, Gastroenteritis, Leptospirosis, Meningitis, Hepatitis, and various parasitic diseases.&lt;br /&gt;The amount of biogas that can be yielded from human waste is limited in comparison with livestock manure and other feedstocks. Are stomachs are just too efficient! David House states in his excellent book that 1000 lbs of humans produces about 0.6 cubic meters of biogas (enough cooking fuel for about 1 to 2 persons). But that amount quickly adds up, please reference the internet for example projects especially in Rwanda, India and Thailand.&lt;br /&gt;Untreated sewage, along with causing a prevalence of disease, developing countries are also disposing of valuable nutrients in places where fertilizers aren’t available. Biodigesters turn waste into a biofertilizer. There is also a major flaw in the sewage treatment systems of developed countries where enormous amounts of energy are used to aerate and treat sewage; Anaerobic Digestion treats sewage and also produces energy rather than consumes it. This article discusses considerations for human waste treatment and various options are outlined.&lt;br /&gt;Important! Considerations&lt;br /&gt;A handful of considerations need to be made for treating human waste. There are IMPORTANT disease related issues and some common physical considerations. The number 1 issue is handling human waste. Operators that handle human waste without any precautions will inevitably get sick. The waste handling process must consider the handlers. Ideally a waste treatment system will eliminate any direct handling by humans.&lt;br /&gt;Typical biodigester effluent is NOT sterile. Anaerobic digestion creates a competitive environment where pathogens are out competed by non-infectious microorganisms and therefore are edged out in terms of populations. This means that pathogens are REDUCED, but not entirely eliminated. However, studies in thermophilic biodigesters (45-55 degrees C) have shown a much greater reduction of pathogens than in ambient temperature and lower temperature biodigesters (see biodigesters capable of controlling pathogens section). A waste treatment system needs to address the issue of disease during the process via pre or post treatment or the effluent needs to be disposed of accordingly.&lt;br /&gt;One common consideration in designing biodigesters to fit into an already existing system is that usually human excrement is heavily diluted to facilitate movement. Toilet flushes consume large volumes of water (range from 1.3 to 2.5 gallons but about 2 gallons in the US) and designing a biodigester with for example a 30-day hydraulic retention time (HRT) for treating flushed waste requires a very large volume biodigester at a 2 gallon per flush dilution. There are biodigester designs, however, that can handle an HRT, or the amount of time a biodigester retains a waste, of only a few hours. These designs are sludge retaining reactors such as an Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) and even better performing Fixed Film Reactors. One last important factor to consider is ammonia toxicity as human waste has been reported to have a low C: N ratio. This problem can be solved via dilution and co-digestion of a carbon rich feedstock such as molasses. Animal waste is inherently safer to treat then human waste because they tend to carry less human pathogens, though consideration for some manure born pathogens ought to be made as well.&lt;br /&gt;Treatment Methods: Heat Pre-treatment&lt;br /&gt;During this process human excrement would be pasteurized to 70 degrees C before entering the biodigester. This would be done best before dilution to reduce energy costs and can be done using waste steam, passive solar heating, or direct combustion of biogas or any other fuel source. The process would make more of the human excrement available for Anaerobic Digestion and would in fact likely increase the amount of biogas produced. Heat pre-treatment can also lower the HRT. Sterilization upfront will deal with any pathogen related effluent issues down the line and produce a biofertilizer for comestible (fit for human consumption) crops.&lt;br /&gt;Treatment Methods: Treatment through Retention&lt;br /&gt;Very long retention times for sewage have the ability to virtually destroy pathogens. The amount of time human excrement should be retained varies. In a very warm climate you may want to retain the waste for 60-90 days, however in cold climates (20 degrees C and below) 150 or more days of retention are recommended. Retention time can be controlled via the biodigester HRT or by holding the effluent for an additional period of time. The option that is the most economic should be considered as well as safety factors such as the access to holding tank and any other issue that involves potential exposure to humans and animals. Safety Warning: Retention methods to destroy pathogens should be confirmed by lab results before adoption.&lt;br /&gt;Treatment Methods: Post Treatment and Sterilization&lt;br /&gt;Biodigester effluent may also be treated in a secondary treatment phase such as Ultrafiltration, Ultraviolet Light (UV), a Treatment Wetland, Composting, or Aerobic Treatment. Ultra filtration consists of running the effluent through a membrane that only allows solubles to pass through. At the moment this technology is more likely to be used in the developed world but appropriate solutions using materials such as mangroves and other plants might be used. Ultrafiltration is practical for concentrated wastewaters that have had most solids settled out. UV treatment is a common water treatment technology however may only be practical for dilute effluents where turbidity is not an issue. A treatment wetland provides additional treatment as well as habitat for wildlife. Essentially a movement gradient is created and planted with wetland plants that facilitate nutrient and pathogen removal. This is the way wastewaters, such as storm runoff, are naturally treated in the environment. A composting process maybe allowed used to treat the effluent however it must first be dried to facilitate aeration, which is land and energy intensive. Care must be made to ensure that no one breathes in the dust from the fresh effluent during this process. The effluent may also go through an aerobic treatment process to polish the effluent however this is expensive, intensive, and removes nutrients from a productive system. Other waste treatment options may include sand filters and clarifiers.&lt;br /&gt;Treatment Methods: Biodigesters Capable of Controlling Pathogens&lt;br /&gt;As previously alluded to, some biodigester processes are able to control virtually all the pathogens found in sewage. These are thermophilic biodigesters, phase biodigesters, and staged biodigesters. In a thermophilic biodigester the environment within the biodigester is so hot that many pathogens are unable to survive. The environment is also far more competitive than in a regular biodigester. Pathogens are usually acclimated and most happy around body temperature. Fortunately many of the organisms capable of carrying out Anaerobic Digestion are thermophiles, or heat loving organisms. However caution must be made with the previously mentioned ammonia toxicity, as thermophilic biodigesters are far more sensitive to this issue than ambient and lower temperature biodigesters. A phase biodigester separates the respective phases that material must undergo during the anaerobic digestion process. Organic material undergoes hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis. Essentially a container can facilitate the conversion of organics to solubles (hydrolysis), the production of acids (acidogenesis and acetogenesis) or methane production (methanogenesis). In phase Anaerobic Digestion two or more containers are used to separate the phases. This can be done physically (removing organics as they are hydrolysed), chemically (inhibiting methane production or buffering acids to a pH where methanogenesis can occur) or biologically (acidifying the first reactor(s)). If a reactor is allowed to acidify to inhibit methane production the low pH will also create an extreme environment where some pathogens are unable to live. After an acidic environment they will be introduced to a methane-producing environment that additionally removes pathogens through microbial competition. A two-phase biodigester capable of eliminating pathogens might have an acidifying first tank, which is then fed into a thermophilic, methane producing second tank. Staged biodigesters can work in the same way by changing the competition mechanisms in various stages (reactors) though still not quite separating the phases.&lt;br /&gt;Applying Effluent&lt;br /&gt;Completely eliminating pathogens is not necessary when adequate care is given to applying the effluent. Biodigester effluent that still contains pathogens can be applied into subterranean leachfields (with a clarifier), used for non-edible crops and in some cases forage crops, and applied directly to land. However all these things require safety considerations. The amount of human exposure needs to be taken into consideration. Groundwater and water body contamination are all potential threats to releasing effluent not completely void of pathogens into the environment. Direct land application needs to take direct exposure into account such as use of land by children and adults. Non-edible crops are another option and also allow for nutrient capture. Crops could include energy crops, biomass production, and many others. Exposure to humans however is again a risk that must be accounted for. The simplest and safest way to dispose of effluent is to simply inject it in an already existing sewer system.&lt;br /&gt;Conclusion&lt;br /&gt;Biodigesters offer a variety of benefits to the person interested in ethical treatment of human waste. The most important consideration, which has not necessarily always been effectively managed, is the danger pathogens in human waste pose to health. These systems are scalable from the household, community level to the larger industrial scale applications. Successful applications can be found worldwide and as well as in history. Best of all, Anaerobic Digestion offers to turn waste into a resource.&lt;br /&gt;Further Reading&lt;br /&gt;Bitton G. Wastewater Microbiology. 3rd Ed.Wiley-Liss 2005&lt;br /&gt;van Haandel, A.C., Lettinga, G. Anaerobic Sewage Treatment: A Practical Guide for Regions with a Hot Climate J Whiley 1994&lt;br /&gt;House, D. The Complete Biogas Handbook 3rd Ed 2007 www.completebiogas.com&lt;br /&gt;Speece, R. E. Anaerobic Biotechnology for Industrial Wastewaters Archae Press 1996&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;article source : www.appropedia.org&lt;br /&gt;    &lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/7899975358675753361-5847046310701090031?l=engineering-system.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/feeds/5847046310701090031/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/making-biogas-from-human-waste-why-not.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/5847046310701090031'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/7899975358675753361/posts/default/5847046310701090031'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://engineering-system.blogspot.com/2009/12/making-biogas-from-human-waste-why-not.html' title='Making Biogas From Human Waste ? Why not'/><author><name>Admin</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/03128461609982820965</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='32' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzcNddxnGpI/AAAAAAAAAJU/1IR8zzMygbE/S220/aku_bigger.JPG'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzGB2xiavtI/AAAAAAAAAHs/AtEiqs0OZII/s72-c/biogas.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899975358675753361.post-1096348056118415058</id><published>2009-12-21T21:47:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2009-12-21T21:49:33.605-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='MPAP'/><title type='text'>How to be A good Welder</title><content type='html'>&lt;a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzBdpaeI9SI/AAAAAAAAAHk/wv5qRbsCkrM/s1600-h/welding.jpg"&gt;&lt;img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 146px; height: 110px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_0weq_QeqNsI/SzBdpaeI9SI/AAAAAAAAAHk/wv5qRbsCkrM/s200/welding.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5417933317788464418" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Whether you work on your classic truck for a hobby or you're a hardcore collector aiming for a perfect restoration, welding can be a challenging skill to master and requires different equipment for heavier work. Once you've honed this talent, though, the world of custom fabrication and design is limited only by your own creativity.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="fullpost"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Welding is mastered through practice and technique. Trial and error is the way we all learn, but you have to understand the basics first. At CCT, we decided it was time to take up the MIG gun and show you a few tips to steer you in the right direction, beginning with MIG welding. In upcoming issues, we'll also cover TIG and plasma cutting, and we'll even tell you what you'll need to stay safe as the sparks fly.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;MIG Welding: A Brief Introduction&lt;br /&gt;Metal inert gas (MIG) welding is a fairly easy process to learn. The welding machine creates an arc between the work piece (what you want to weld) and a continuously consumable electrode (the wire in the MIG gun). The operator need only focus on directing the MIG gun at the joint and proper motion, which is what we'll be looking at more in depth. Mild steel, stainless, and even aluminum can all be welded using the MIG process.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Selecting The Right EquipmentMIG welding is easier with the right machine. Your requirements are based on the level of your welding needs and what you want to do to your truck. To begin our look at MIG welding, we'll discuss two extremes: the latest entry-level welder for welding in your home shop, and one for the more experienced welder who may want to weld thicker metal and aluminum.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Setting your weld parameters can be tricky when you are starting out. The folks over at Miller recently introduced the Millermatic 140 with Auto-Set to take the guesswork out of setup and operation. Auto-Set technology allows the operator to simply set the wire diameter and the material thickness and the machine is ready to weld. It automatically sets wire feed speed and voltage for optimal welding results with relatively no spatter for welding 24-gauge up to 3/16-inch mild steel. Right out of the box, this 30-140-amp, 115V machine is designed to grow with the operator. When desired, the Auto-Set feature can be turned off and the operator can select voltage and wire feed speed in manual mode. List price for this welder is $789.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For those looking for the flexibility to MIG thicker materials (22-gauge to 1/2-inch) or aluminum, the Millermatic 251 connects to 208V/230V or 230V/460V/575V power and offers an optional direct-connect spool gun. The 251 doesn't have the 140's Auto-Set feature, but it has a higher amperage range (30-300), plus the ability to weld aluminum is really cool. The base list price for the Millermatic 251 is $2,342. The optional spool gun is an additional cost.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The recipe for making a sound MIG weld is the same whether you are just starting out or you have years of fabrication experience: technique. Both machines will give you a great weld provided you use the right technique. MIG welding on steel is different than welding aluminum with a spool gun, not to mention the various angles you'll be welding.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Depending on what stage your truck is in, you'll mo
